STUDY  OF  FABRICS 


HOME  ECONOMICS  SERIES 


STUDY  OF  FABRICS 


*         BY 

ANNABELL  TURNER 

INSTRUCTOR    IN    HOME   ECONOMICS, 
EXTENSION   DIVISION,    UNIVERSITY   OF   WISCONSIN 


ILLUSTRATED 


D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 
NEW  YORK  LONDON 

1918 


COPYRIGHT,  1918,  BY 

D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America 


PREFACE 

THE  object  of  this  book  is  to  give  the  reader  a 
knowledge  of  the  various  textile  fibers,  their  proper- 
ties in  regard  to  warmth  and  hygiene,  their  cleansing 
and  laundering  possibilities ;  and  such  understanding 
of  the  processes  of  manufacture  as  will  enable  her  to 
judge,  intelligently,  good  and  bad  materials,  adul 
terations,  prices,  weaves,  etc.  Upon  woman  devolves 
the  responsibility  of  the  economical  expenditure  of 
the  family  income ;  it  is  her  duty  to  know  that  she  is 
receiving  the  worth  of  her  money,  and,  yet,  most 
women  are  dependent  upon  the  word  of  the  clerk, 
very  often  far  more  ignorant  than  the  purchaser. 
The  standard  of  materials  will  never  be  raised  to  its 
proper  level,  until  the  consumers  are  intelligent 
enough  to  make  the  demand. 

A  detailed  study  is  made  of  each  of  the  common 
textile  fibers  used  for  household  purposes — cotton, 
linen,  wool,  and  silk — taking  up  the  growth,  manu- 
facture, physical,  and  chemical  properties  with  special 
emphasis  on  the  practical  household  tests  which  may 
be  used  in  detecting  adulterations  and  judging  of 
the  quality.  Laundry  problems  are  discussed  at  some 
length  dealing  with  the  cleansing  agents  commonly 
used  in  the  laundry  and  the  principles  which  should 
govern  a  choice  of  the  method  best  suited  to  in- 
dividual conditions.  Removal  of  stains  and  dry 


PREFACE 

cleaning  are  treated  in  a  simple,  untechnical  way. 
One  chapter  deals  with  the  economic  side  of  the 
clothing  problem.  Suggestions  are  given  as  to  the 
most  economical  ways  of  spending  the  clothing  al- 
lowance, the  proportion  of  the  income  which  should 
be  spent  for  clothing,  and  there  is  some  discussion 
of  clothing  budgets.  Only  pre-war  prices  are  given 
in  this  book  and  they  can  be  considered  only  as  a  basis 
of  comparison. 

ANNABELL  TURNER. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  COTTON ...  i 

II.  WOOL     ...........  30 

III.  TESTS  FOR  WOOLEN  MATERIALS  ....  51 

IV.  SILK.      .      .     V 66 

V.  LINEN 90 

VI.  LAUNDRY  PROBLEMS 104 

VII.  HYGIENE  OF  CLOTHING 141 

VIII.  THE  ECONOMICS  OF  CLOTHING    .      .      «     .  163 

INDEX 195 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTKATIONS 

|/  PAGE 

Girl  spinning        .        .        .        .        ..       •        •      2 

Throwing  the  shuttle  through  the  warp  shed  by 

hand       .-       .  .         .         .         ..      4 

A  cotton  boll  unopened  .  .  <*  .  .  8 
A  cotton  boll  opened  .  .  .  •  .  .10 
Types  of  cotton  fibers  .  .  .  .  .  .  13 

Cotton,   mercerized   and  stretched,    showing  in- 
complete mercerization  .         .        .        .         .19 

Comparison  of  different  varieties  of  wood  ,  .  31 
A  pair  of  hand  cards  .  .  .  .  .  .36 

Woolen  goods  as  it  comes  from  the  loom.     Same, 

after  shrinking.     Teasel        .         .        .         .     39 

A  woolen  yarn  untwisted.     A  worsted  yarn  un- 
twisted  .         .        .        *        .        .        .         .     41 

Poor  quality  shoddy.  Better  quality  shoddy  .  45 
Warp  and  woof  threads  exposed  separately  .  .  55 

Materials  before  and   after  boiling   in  the  lye 

solution  .         .        *        .  -•••-...      •        .57 

Materials   before  and   after  boiling   in  the   lye 

solution  .        .        .        <        .        *       ".    .     .     59 
ix 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Materials  before  and   after  boiling  in  the  lye 

solution 60 

Silkworm  culture  .  ..'•••  .  .  .  .67 
Reel  in  operation  .  .  v  .  .  .  .71 
Reeled  and  waste  silk  .  .'  .  .  .  .  71 

Weighted  silk  above,  pure  silk  below,  before  and 

after  burning         .        .        .        .        .        .     83 

Weighted  silks  before  and  after  burning  .  .84 

Weighted  silks  before  and  after  burning  .  .85 

Pure  silks  before  and  after  burning      .  .  .     86 

Chardonnet  silk  fibers          .        .        .  .  .     88 

Flax  in  different  stages  of  its  preparation  for 

weaving.         .        .        .        .        .        .        .     91 

Flax  fibers  97 


THE 

STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

CHAPTER  I 

COTTON 

Evolution  of  Spinning  and  Weaving.— The 
textile  art  is  older  than  man,  for,  long  before 
he  came  upon  earth,  spiders  and  caterpillars 
spun  their  threads,  birds  wove  their  nests, 
and  certain  trees  fabricated  a  kind  of  cloth  by 
closely  interweaving  the  fibers  of  their  inner 
bark.  Man  gradually  conceived  the  idea  of 
using  this  bark  for  clothing  by  soaking  it  in 
water  and  beating  it  with  wooden  mallets  to  felt 
the  fibers  together.  It  was  then  dried  and 
bleached  in  the  sun  and  colored  with  vegetable 
dyes,  the  method  of  coloring  being  to  lay  a  leaf 
or  flower  on  the  dye  and,  as  soon  as  the  surface 
was  covered  with  the  dye,  to  press  it  down  on 
the  cloth,  thus  fixing  the  design.  The  bark  most 

l 


e  OF  FABRICS 

used  for  this  ' l  Tapa  cloth, ' '  as  it  is  called,  was 
that  of  the  paper  mulberry. 

Perhaps  the  interlacing  of  the  barks  sug- 
gested other  possibilities  to  the  people  of  that 
day,  for  they  began  rudely  to  weave  together 
reeds,  rushes,  and  twigs  to  form  baskets  and 


Courtesy  of  Marshall  Field  &  Co. 

GIRL  SPINNING 

mats,  expressing  their  conception  of  art  and 
beauty  by  combinations  of  color  and  weave. 
Beautiful  examples  of  primitive  weaving  are 
found  in  northern  South  America,  Africa,  and 
among  the  western  Indians. 

It  was  with  the  discovery  of  spinning  yarn 
that  the  true  textile  art  began,  and  although 


COTTON  3 

there  is  no  authentic  information  as  to  the  ac- 
tual time  of  the  origin  of  spinning,  we  do  know 
that  it  dates  back  before  2,000  B.  C.  Early 
nomadic  tribes  used  threads  to  fasten  together 
the  skins  which  they  used  as  clothing — perhaps 
wool  torn  from  the  sheep  in  passing  bushes 
and  brambles  may  have  suggested  it  to  them. 

Until  1,500  A.  D.  all  spinning  was  done  by 
hand  and  a  spindle,  which  was  at  first  merely 
a  stick  upon  which  the  thread  was  wound.  Later 
it  was  discovered  that  the  spindle  could  be 
whirled  around  faster  if  it  had  a  weight  on 
the  end,  so  a  piece  of  wood  was  attached  to 
the  lower  end.  This  was  called  the  whorl.  The 
need  of  something  to  fasten  the  wool  to,  brought 
about  the  distaff,  a  stick  around  which  the  wool 
was  wrapped  and  then  held  in  the  hand  or 
tucked  in  the  belt. 

At  the  end  of  the  fifteenth,  or  beginning  of 
the  sixteenth,  century  a  one  thread  machine  was 
invented  which  enabled  the  spinner  to  produce 
seven  times  more  yarn  than  by  the  distaff  and 
spindle.  Gradually  improvements  and  new  in- 
ventions followed,  so  that  today  most  of  the 
spinning  has  been  taken  from  women's  hands 
and  is  produced  by  means  of  machinery. 


4  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

The  weaving  of  the  spun  yarn  came  as  a  natu- 
ral sequence  to  the  discovery  of  spinning. 
Linen  cloth  of  exquisite  fineness  of  thread  and 


THROWING  THE  SHUTTLE  THROUGH  THE  WARP  SHED  BY 
HAND 


COTTON  5 

evenness  of  weave  is  found  in  old  Egyptian 
tombs,  and  the  early  Greeks  and  Eomans  pro- 
duced woolen  fabrics  of  great  beauty  and  firm- 
ness. Manufacture  of  both,  wool  and  flax  ex- 
isted in  Greece  in  the  days  of  Homer. 

The  early  Egyptian  loom  was  a  vertical  frame 
similar  in  idea  to  the  tapestry  loom.  Some 
savage  tribes  stretched  the  warp  threads  be- 
tween convenient  objects  on  the  ground  or  from 
horizontal  supports  and  wove  back  and  forth 
between  the  warp  threads  as  in  darning.  Many 
modifications  have  come  since  the  early  days 
but  the  same  three  steps  to  the  process  of  weav- 
ing remain,  whether  the  weaving  be  done  on  the 
crudest  of  hand  looms  or  upon  the  most  modern 
machinery:  (a)  shedding,  the  lifting  of  certain 
warp  threads,  thereby  making  a  space,  or  shed, 
through  which  the  shuttle  is  passed;  (b)  pick- 
ing, passing  the  shuttle  through  the  threads; 
and  (c)  battening,  pressing  the  weft  thread 
against  the  preceding  ones  to  make  the  cloth 
firm  and  even. 

PARTS  OF  A  LOOM 

1.  Loom.. — An  arrangement  for  spreading  a  warp  and 
keeping  it  in  order  for  weaving. 


6  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

2.  Raddle. — An   implement  used   for  spreading  the 

warp  evenly. 

3.  Beams. — (a)  Warp  beam,  used  for  winding  up  the 

warp  threads. 

(b)   Cloth  beam,  used  to  wind  up  the  fin- 
ished, woven  material. 

4.  Leash. — Loops  through  which  threads  are  passed  to 

give  pattern  to  the  weave. 

5.  Heddle. — A  collection  of  heddles. 

6.  Shed. — The  opening  made  in  the  warp  for  the  pas- 

sage of  the  shuttle — produced  by  the  heddle. 

7.  Shuttle. — A  tool  used  for  carrying  the  weft. 

8.  Reed. — A  comb-like  instrument  for  keeping  warp 

even  and  beating  the  weft  together. 

9.  Tenterhooks. — Contrivances  to  hold  the  warp  even 

on  the  sides. 


Cotton.— The  cotton  plant  belongs  to  the  nat- 
ural order  of  Malvaceae,  or  mallow  family,  and 
is  known  scientifically  by  the  generic  name 
"Gossypram."  It  is  a  shrub  which  reaches  a 
height  of  from  four  to  six  feet,  and  is  indige- 
nous principally  to  islands  and  sea-coast  regions 
of  the  tropics,  although  it  can  be  cultivated  up 
to  about  37°  on  either  side  of  the  equator.  A 
warm,  humid  climate  and  sandy  soil  are  most 
favorable  to  its  growth. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  the  cotton  plant, 
the  most  important  being:  (a)  Gossypium  her- 


COTTON  7 

baceum,  which  grows  from  4  to  6  feet  in  height 
and  bears  a  yellow  flower.  The  seeds  are  cov- 
ered with  a  short  gray  down  and  the  fiber  is 
short.  This  variety  is  found  in  Egypt,  Asia 
Minor,  Arabia,  India,  and  China,  (b)  Gossy- 
pium  arbareum,  which  grows  to  a  height  of  from 
15  to  20  feet.  The  seed  is  covered  with  a  green- 
ish fur  and  is  enveloped  in  a  fine  silky  down, 
yellowish  white  in  color.  It  is  found  in  Egypt, 
Arabia,  and  China,  (c)  Gossypium  barbadense, 
which  grows  from  6  to  15  feet  high.  The  flowers 
are  yellow  and  the  seeds  black  and  smooth,  be- 
ing destitute  of  the  hair  that  characterizes  other 
cottons.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Barbadoes,  from 
which  it  derives  its  name.  The  best  quality 
cottons  come  from  this  species — Sea  Island  and 
Florida  cottons — from  which  are  spun  the  finest 
yarns.  Long-stapled  Egyptian  cotton  is  sup- 
posed to  have  come  from  this  stock.  The  chief 
cotton  countries  of  the  world  in  order  of  impor- 
tance are:  United  States,  India,  Egypt  and 
Brazil,  West  Indies,  West  Coast  of  Africa, 
Asia,  Asia  Minor,  China,  and  Queensland. 

In  the  southern  states  cotton  is  planted  with 
a  machine,  the  seeds  being  dropped  in  a  con- 
tinuous stream.  When  the  young  plant  is  about 


I 


COTTON  9 

three  inches  high  it  is  thinned  out  with  a  hoe — 
about  twelve  inches  being  left  between  plants. 
The  time  for  planting  depends  upon  the  lati- 
tude, beginning  about  the  middle  of  March  and 
ending  the  first  half  of  May. 

Ten  or  eleven  weeks  after  the  planting,  the 
shrub  is  ready  to  bloom.  The  flower  has  five 
petals,  yellow  at  the  base  and  growing  lighter 
in  color  at  the  edges.  When  the  flower  drops 
off,  a  dark  green  pod  is  seen  which  increases 
in  size  and  finally  discloses  a  mass  of  downy 
white  fibers  in  which  are  imbedded  the  dark 
brown  or  black  seeds.  The  cotton  is  picked  as 
soon  as  ripened  and  separated  from  the  seeds 
by  a  process  known  as  ginning.  The  seeds  are 
hulled  and  the  kernel  put  through  a  hydraulic 
press  which  squeezes  all  the  oil  from  it,  leav- 
ing the  meal,  which  is  used  as  feed  for  cattle. 
The  refined  oil  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  olive 
oil,  the  residue  being  used  as  soap  stock. 

After  the  cotton  is  ginned  it  is  baled  and 
shipped  to  the  mill,  the  standard  size  of  a  cotton 
bale  in  the  United  States  being  56  by  24  by  32 
inches  and  weighing  about  five  hundred  pounds. 
The  bales  are  wrapped  in  bagging  and  strapped 
with  sheet-iron  bands.  When  the  cotton  ar- 


fe 

8 


COTTON  11 

rives  at  tho  mill  the  bales  are  broken  and  the 
cotton  starts  upon  its  journey,  passing  through 
various  processes  until  it  is  converted  into  yarn. 
The  first  step  consists  in  giving  the  cotton  a 
thorough  cleaning,  which  is  accomplished  by  a 
series  of  machines  which  pull  the  wads  of  cot- 
ton into  shreds,  beat  out  the  dirt  and  any  seeds 
left  in,  and  finally  leave  the  cotton  in  the  form 
of  batten  upon  the  cylinders.  From  here  the 
cotton  goes  to  the  carding  machine  where  it  is 
combed  to  straighten  the  fibers  and  remove  any 
remaining  foreign  material  and  also  some  of 
the  short  fibers.  Then  it  goes  into  the  combing 
machine  which  casts  aside  as  waste  all  fibers 
below  a  certain  length,  passing  the  rest  on  to 
the  drawing  machine  where  the  fibers  are  laid 
perfectly  straight  and  parallel  and  the  cotton 
drawn  out  as  much  as  possible  without  break- 
age. The  combing  process  is  omitted  unless 
the  cotton  is  being  prepared  for  especially  fine 
or  high  grade  materials. 

Several  intermediate  steps  take  place  before 
the  fiber  is  spun  into  yarn,  the  principal  point 
of  difference  being  the  amount  of  twist  im- 
parted to  the  strand.  Spinning  produces  the 
finished  yarn,  which  is  converted  into  thread  by 


12  THS  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

uniting  two  or  more  yarns  firmly  by  twisting. 
All  sizes  of  6-cord  threads  are  made  of  six 
strands  and  3-cord  spool  cotton  is  made  of  three 
strands.  The  ordinary  spool  of  cotton  thread 
contains  200  yards. 

Before  being  woven  into  cloth,  cotton  threads 
are  strengthened  by  coating  them  with  a  prepa- 
ration of  starch,  flour,  paraffin,  tallow,  etc.,  to 
enable  them  to  withstand  the  friction  result- 
ing from  the  weaving  process  without  break- 
ing. After  weaving,  the  material  is  bleached, 
starched,  and  calendered,  the  object  of  the  last 
process  being  to  give  it  a  perfectly  smooth  and 
even  surface  and  also  to  impart  a  luster  to  the 
cloth  as  it  passes  through.  The  cloth  is  calen- 
dered several  times,  according  to  the  finish  re- 
quired. 

Cotton  is  dyed  either  in  the  yarn  or  in  the 
cloth,  but  it  has  much  less  affinity  for  dyestuff s 
than  animal  fibers,  and,  relatively  speaking, 
there  are  only  a  few  with  which  it  can  be  dyed 
without  the  assistance  of  a  mordant. 

Physical  Characteristics. — Under  the  micro- 
scope the  cotton  fiber  usually  presents  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  flat,  slightly  twisted  ribbon  with 
thickened  edges.  Physically  the  individual  cot- 


COTTON  13 

ton  fiber  consists  of  a  single  long  cell  with  one 
end  attached  directly  to  the  surface  of  the  seed. 
While  it  is  growing,  the  fiber  is  round  and  cylin- 


TYPES  OF  COTTON  FIBERS 

1.  Glossy,  dead,  structureless  fiber; 

2.  Thin,  transparent,  flat,  unripe  fiber; 

3.  Half  ripe  fiber  with  thin  cell  wall; 

4.  Mature,   ripe   fiber   with   full   twist   and   thick,   well- 
defined  cell  wall. 

drical,  having  a  central  canal  running  through 
it,  but  after  the  pod  has  ripened  and  burst  the 
cell  wall  collapses,  causing  the  fiber  to  form  into 
a  flat,  ribbon-like  band.  Upon  ripening,  the 


14  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

juices  in  the  inner  tube  dry  up,  causing  the 
characteristic  spiral  twist  of  ripe  cotton.  This 
spiral  twist  makes  cotton  valuable  for  spinning 
purposes  as  it  causes  the  fibers  to  lock  around 
each  other  more  tightly.  In  diameter  the  cotton 
fiber  is  rather  even  for  the  greater  part  of  its 
length,  gradually  tapering  to  a  point  at  its  out- 
growing end.  The  lengths  of  different  varieties 
of  cotton  fibers  vary  from  three-fourths  to  two 
and  one-half  inches,  sea-island  cotton  being  the 
longest. 

The  hygroscopicity,  or  power  to  absorb  water 
without  feeling  damp,  is  between  six  and  eight 
per  cent  of  its  weight.  Cotton  which  has  been 
freed  from  the  natural  vegetable  wax  is  more 
hygroscopic,  and  is  known  as  absorbent  cotton. 

Linen  has  the  greVtest  power  of  heat  conduc- 
tion and  cotton  ranks  second.  Materials  made 
from  linen  are,  therefore,  the  coolest  and  cotton 
materials  come  next. 

Though  resistant  to  the  action  of  moths  and 
insects  in  general,  cotton  is  liable  to  undergo 
fermentation,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  formation 
of  mildew  on  cotton  fabrics  stored  in  warm, 
damp  places. 

Chemical  Nature  of  Cotton. — In  its  chemical 


COTTON  15 

composition,  cotton  consists  almost  entirely  of 
cellulose,  on  the  surface  of  which  is  a  protect- 
ing layer  of  wax  which  is  removed  in  one  boiling 
out  and  bleaching  process  performed  previous 
to  the  dyeing  and  printing  of  the  cotton. 

Effect  of  Chemicals  on  the  Fiber. — Organic 
acids  and  their  salts,  such  as  acetic  acid  in  vine- 
gar, oxalic  in  rhubarb,  tartrates  in  grapes,  and 
citrates  in  lemons,  even  when  moderately  con- 
centrated, do  not  appear  to  have  any  injurious 
effect  upon  the  cotton  fiber  unless  they  are  al- 
lowed to  dry  on  the  fabric  and  are  afterwards 
moistened  and  ironed  dry  with  a  hot  iron.  The 
destructive  action  is  not  so  much  of  a  chemical 
nature  as  mechanical,  it  being  caused  by  the 
acids  crystallizing  within  the  fiber  and  breaking 
the  cell  wall.  Dry  heat  in  connection  with  or- 
ganic acids  is  more  injurious  than  moist  heat. 
Very  dilute  solutions  of  mineral  acids,  if  cold, 
have  no  appreciable  effect  upon  cotton,  but  if 
the  fiber  is  impregnated  with  such  a  solution 
and  allowed  to  dry  rapidly  it  becomes  tender 
due  to  the  concentration  of  the  acid  induced  by 
the  evaporation  of  water.  Heat  will  cause  di- 
lute mineral  acids  to  attack  the  fiber  much  more 
readily  than  otherwise.  In  all  dyeing  and 


16  THE  STUDY  OF  FABEICS 

bleaching  operations,  therefore,  where  the  use 
of  acid  may  be  required,  the  temperature  of  the 
acid  baths  should  not  be  above  70°  F.,  nor 
should  a  solution  greater  than  two  per  cent  be 
used.  Organic  acids  should  be  substituted  for 
mineral  acids  wherever  possible,  and  all  of  the 
acid  should  be  removed  from  the  cotton  or  neu- 
tralized before  drying  or  there  is  danger  that 
the  material  may  be  ruined. 

Action  of  Alkalies  on  Cotton. — Alkalies  have 
a  very  different  effect  upon  the  cotton  fiber  from 
that  of  acids.  Under  ordinary  conditions  they 
are  harmless.  Dilute  solutions  of  either  the 
carbonated  or  caustic  alkalies  even  at  a  boiling 
temperature  have  little  if  any  injurious  effect 
on  the  cotton  fiber. 

Concentrated  solutions  of  caustic  alkalies 
have  a  peculiar  effect  upon  cotton.  If  the  fab- 
ric is  immersed  for  two  minutes  in  a  strong 
solution  of  caustic  soda  and  is  then  removed  at 
once  and  washed  free  of  the  alkali,  it  is  found 
to  have  shrunken  greatly  and  to  have  become 
much  closer  and  firmer  in  texture,  the  cloth 
having  actually  been  strengthened  by  the 
shrinkage.  Long-continued  action  in  concen- 


COTTON  17 

trated  alkaline  solutions,  however,  will  gradu- 
ally destroy  the  cloth. 

Bleaching  Agents. — Formerly  linens  and  cot- 
tons were  bleached  entirely  by  slow  oxidation 
due  to  action  of  water,  air,  and  sunlight,  but 
various  artificial  bleaching  stuffs  have  been  dis- 
covered which  hasten  the  process  and  save  both 
time  and  labor.  A  common  household  bleach, 
chloride  of  lime  (a  "bleaching  powder")  is  a 
compound  of  chlorine  (a  gas)  with  calcium  ox- 
ide. This  powder  has  the  power  of  destroying 
colors  and  stains  at  once  but  it  also  attacks  the 
fibers  of  the  material  unless  the  action  is  neu- 
tralized by  rinsing  the  cloth  in  some  alkaline 
solution.  Ordinary  household  ammonia,  or  hy- 
posulphate  of  soda  will  do  this  satisfactorily. 

The  can  in  which  the  chloride  of  lime  is  kept 
should  not  be  allowed  to  stand  uncovered,  as  the 
chemical  will  rapidly  lose  its  strength. 

Another  bleaching  agent  much  used  for 
household  purposes  is  Javelle  water,  which  is 
similar  to  "bleaching  powder''  except  that  soda 
replaces  the  lime.  It  is  prepared  by  dissolving 
1  Ib.  of  washing  soda  in  a  quart  of  boiling  water, 
allowing  it  to  cool.  Then  half  a  pound  of 
bleaching  powder  is  dissolved  in  two  quarts  of 


18  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

cold  water,  allowed  to  settle,  and  the  clear  liquid 
added  to  the  soda.  The  whole  is  strained  off, 
bottled,  and  kept  in  a  dark  place.  As  in  using 
bleaching  powder,  rinsing  in  a  neutralizing  solu- 
tion is  necessary.  Both  should  be  kept  in  glass 
bottles  having  glass  or  rubber  stoppers. 

Mercerized  Cotton. — The  process  of  merceri- 
zation  is  named  after  John  Mercer  who  discov- 
ered in  1844  that  cotton  might  be  given  a  high 
degree  of  luster  and  at  the  same  time  be 
strengthened  by  subjecting  it  to  the  chemical 
action  of  caustic  alkali  and  a  strong  tension  to 
prevent  contraction. 

When  the  cotton  fiber  is  placed  in  the  caustic 
solution  it  undergoes  a  peculiar  physical  modi- 
fication, changing  from  the  flat,  twisted,  ribbon- 
like  shape  to  a  smooth,  rounded,  cylindrical  fiber 
with  thickened  cell  wall.  The  tensile  strength  is 
greatly  increased,  amounting  in  some  cases  to 
from  30%  to  50%. 

Mercerization  imparts  a  high  luster  to  the 
cotton  fiber,  due  partly  to  the  fact  that  the  fiber, 
being  cylindrical,  reflects  the  light  instead  of 
absorbing  it,  and  to  another  condition  which 
affects  the  lustrous  appearance,  the  change  in 
the  cell  elements.  The  substance  becomes  gela- 


COTTON  19 

tinous  and  translucent,  thereby  affecting  the 
optical  properties  of  the  fiber  and  lessening  the 
amount  of  light  absorbed.  Ordinarily  the  proc- 
ess of  mercerization  is  not  continued  until  every 


COTTON,   MERCERIZED   AND    STRETCHED,    SHOWING   INCOM- 
PLETE MERCERIZATION 


fiber  is  completely  mercerized.  The  illustra- 
tion, which  is  typical,  shows  part  of  the  fibers 
still  containing  a  partial  twist. 

Mercerized  cotton  is  somewhat  more  reactive 
towards  dyestuffs  than  other  cottons. 


20  THE  STUDY  OF  FABEICS 

Yarns  of  ordinary  grades  of  cotton  cannot  be 
mercerized  successfully,  and  as  the  cost  of  pro- 
ducing high  grade  mercerized  yarn  is  about 
three  times  that  of  the  same  quality  of  unmer- 
cerized  cotton,  the  higher  cost  of  the  finished 
product  may  readily  be  understood.  Long-sta- 
pled sea-island  cotton  and  Egyptian  varieties 
are  usually  selected  for  the  manufacture  of  mer- 
cerized materials,  as  they  are  better  able  to 
withstand  the  tension  necessary  for  the  perfec- 
tion of  the  process  than  the  short-stapled  fibers. 

Cotton  may  be  mercerized  either  in  the  yarn 
or  in  the  cloth,  although  it  is  usually  done  in 
the  yarn. 

Silk  Finish. — Both  mercerized  and  unmercer- 
ized  cottons  are  often  calendered  to  increase  the 
luster  of  the  material.  The  cloth  is  passed  be- 
tween rollers,  under  heavy  pressure,  one  roller 
being  engraved  with  obliquely  set  lines  (125- 
600  to  an  inch).  The  larger  number  of  very 
fine  parallel  surfaces  reflect  the  light  producing 
a  beautiful  silk  like  luster. 

Unmercerized  cotton  which  has  been  finished 
this  way  is  no  stronger  than  ordinary,  cotton. 
To  distinguish  between  the  mercerized  material 
and  goods  which  has  been  merely  calendered 


COTTON  21 

place  a  piece  of  the  material  under  the  lowest 
power  of  the  microscope  and  turn  it  backward 
and  forward.  Look  for  press  lines  on  the  fibers. 

A  Test  for  Mercerized  Cotton. — Wash  the 
samples,  rinse  well,  and  when  dry  compare  with 
a  piece  of  the  same  which  has  not  been  washed. 
If  the  luster  remains,  the  material  was  mercer- 
ized. The  finish  put  on  by  sizing  material,  pres- 
sure, and  calendering  is  removed  by  washing. 

Experiment.— Select  a  number  of  samples  of 
cotton  materials  which  have  a  lustrous  finish 
and  use  the  test  given  above  to  determine  which 
are  mercerized  and  which  have  simply  been 
treated  to  make  them  appear  mercerized. 

Dyeing. — Dyestuffs  are  classified  in  general 
as  acid,  basic,  substantive,  and  mordant  dyes. 
The  acid  dyes  may  be  used  to  dye  animal  fibers 
directly — that  is,  without  the  use  of  a  mordant. 
Basic  dyes  are  used  directly  on  animal  fibers 
and  may  be  used  on  cotton  if  tannin  is  used  as 
a  mordant.  The  substantive  dyes  will  be  ab- 
sorbed by  both  animal  and  vegetable  fibers, 
although  they  are  usually  used  on  cotton.  The 
mordant  dyes  require  a  metallic  mordant  for 
both  animal  and  vegetable  fibers. 

The  word  mordant  comes  from  a  word  mean- 


22  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

ing ' '  to  bite. "  It  is  a  substance  which  will  unite 
with  the  fiber  and  also  with  the  dye  to  be  used. 

Silk  and  wool  have  both  acid  and  basic  prop- 
erties and,  therefore,  the  acid  and  basic  dyes 
may  be  used  directly  on  these  fibers.  As  cotton 
and  linen  are  inactive  chemically,  these  dyes  will 
not  unite  with  the  vegetable  fibers  unless  a  mor- 
dant is  used.  This  accounts  for  the  fact  that 
cotton  and  linen  are  more  difficult  to  dye  than 
wool  or  silk. 

Natural  dyestuffs  are  no  longer  used  com- 
mercially to  any  extent.  The  following  are  used 
occasionally:  Madder  for  red,  logwood  with 
fustic  for  black,  cutch  for  brown,  and  indigo 
for  blue.  Madder  and  indigo  are  now  produced 
artificially  instead  of  being  obtained  from  tkeir 
natural  sources.  This  has  reduced  their  cost 
materially. 

The  usual  process  of  dyeing  is,  first,  to  treat 
the  cotton  goods  with  a  mordant  (various  salts 
of  aluminum,  chromium,  iron,  tin,  and  copper), 
fixing  it  on  the  fiber  by  means  of  tannin  or  an 
alkali.  The  mordanted  cloth  is  put  into  a  dye 
bath  and  boiled  one  or  more  hours  until  the  de- 
sired shade  is  obtained.  The  salts  of  aluminum 
are  used  as  mordants  for  the  light  shades  and 


COTTON  23 

iron  for  the  dark  ones.  In  general,  chromium 
mordants  give  fastest  dyes.  Aniline  dyes,  made 
from  anilin,  a  coal-tar  product,  are  largely  used 
at  the  present  time,  and  if  care  is  taken  in  their 
use,  prove  satisfactory.  The  commercial  dyes 
which  may  be  purchased  for  home  dyeing  are 
derivatives  of  coal-tar  products  and  good  re- 
sults may  be  obtained  if  the  directions  are  fol- 
lowed carefully.  The  colors  are  more  perma- 
nent than  those  obtained  with  the  natural  dyes. 
Printing. — Block  printing  was  first  used,  the 
design  being  engraved  in  relief  on  blocks  of 
wood.  These  were  dipped  in  the  colored  paste 
and  applied  to  successive  portions  of  the  cloth 
by  hand.  These  blocks  are  now  replaced  by  en- 
graved copper  rolls,  the  design  being  such  that 
it  is  repeated  once  or  a  number  of  times  in  each 
revolution  of  the  cylinder.  There  is  a  printing 
roll  for  each  color  of  the  design.  Sometimes 
both  the  background  and  the  design  are  printed 
on  the  cloth,  but  the  more  common  process  is 
for  the  design  only  to  be  printed  on  the  cloth, 
which  may  be  dyed  afterwards.  In  the  paste  of 
the  printed  design  there  is  some  chemical  which 
prevents  the  portions  printed  from  taking  the 
dye,  consequently  these  remain  white  or  a  dif- 


24  THE  STUDY  OF  FABEICS 

ferent  color  as  the  case  may  be.  This  is  called 
the  " resist"  process.  Another  process  is  to  first 
dye  the  cloth  and  then  print  on  some  chemical 
which,  when  the  calico  is  steamed,  discharges 
the  color.  This  is  called  the  "discharge"  proc- 
ess. Sometimes  this  weakens  the  goods  in  many 
places  where  the  color  has  been  discharged. 
This  accounts  for  the  dropping  away  of  dots 
and  also  the  giving  way  of  white  stripes .  in 
printed  materials.  The  color  paste  contains 
both  the  dye  and  the  mordant.  After  calico  has 
been  printed  it  is  steamed  to  develop  and  fix 
the  color,  washed  to  clear  the  whites,  usually 
sized,  then  pressed  and  dried  by  passing  over 
slowly  revolving,  steam  heated  drums.  In  gen- 
eral the  colors  in  printed  materials  are  not  so 
fast  to  washing  and  sun  as  are  those  dyed  in 
the  piece  or  yarn. 

COMMON  COTTON  MATERIALS 

Gingham. — Cotton  dress  goods  woven  of  plain  dyed 
yarn,  usually  in  checks,  plaids,  or  stripes 

Muslin. — White,  firmly  woven  material  suitable  for 
underwear  and  sheeting 

Calico. — Material  with  a  figured  design  printed  on  one 
side 


COTTON  25 

Cambric. — Fine  material  used  for  dresses,  usually 
white,  but  sometimes  printed  on  one  side 

Batiste. — Fine  dress  material,  either  white  or  printed 

Dimity. — Sheer,  fine  material,  corded  lengthwise, 
usually,  but  sometimes  both  ways 

Sateen. — Cotton  fabric  with  a  glossy  surface  somewhat 
resembling  satin 

Pique. — Heavy  fabric,  corded  either  lengthwise  or 
crosswise,  used  for  waists  and  suitings 

Mull. — Thin,  white,  wiry  fabric  used  as  a  dress  mate- 
rial 

Nainsook. — A  soft,  white,  cotton  fabric  used  for  in- 
fant's clothing,  lingerie,  dress  goods,  etc. 

Organdie. — A  fine,  sheer,  wiry  dress  material,  either 
in  plain  colors  or  printed  designs 

Percale. — A  firm  material  used  for  skirts  and  dresses, 
usually  printed  on  one  side 

Scrim. — An  open  weave  used  for  curtains 

Corduroy. — A  cotton  material  resembling  velvet  but 
woven  with  a  ribbed  effect 

Velveteen. — Cotton  velvet  which  has  a  loose  pile  on 
the  surface 

Testing  for  Fastness  to  Sunlight. — Cover  one 
end  of  a  sample  of  material  with  a  piece  of 
heavy  cardboard  and  expose  the  uncovered  end 
to  the  sunlight  for  a  number  of  days,  examining 
it  in  the  shade  to  see  if  the  exposed  end  has 
changed  in  color  from  that  of  the  covered  part. 
Note  the  number  of  days  it  takes  to  change  the 
color.  Fabrics  that  are  but  slightly  changed  at 


26  THE  STUDY  OF  FABEICS 

the  end  of  a  month  are  called  "fast,"  "moder- 
ately fast"  colors  are  those  but  slightly  faded 
in  14  days,  and  those  which  are  more  or  less 
completely  faded  in  14  days  are  called  "fleet- 
ing." 

Testing  for  Fastness  to  Washing. — Fabrics 
should  withstand  the  action  of  soap,  the  heat, 
and  the  mechanical  friction  necessary  for  laun- 
dering. To  test  the  fabric  wash  it  in  a  soap 
solution  similar  to  that  used  in  the  household, 
not  warmer  than  131°  F.  Repeat  several  times, 
and  if  the  color  does  not  fade  it  is  "fast"  to 
washing. 

Testing  for  Crocking. — Many  dark  colored 
cottons  which  have  been  poorly  dyed  discolor 
other  garments  or  the  skin.  Materials  may  be 
tested  easily  by  rubbing  them  briskly  on  white 
unstarched  cotton  fabric. 

Testing  for  Fastness  to  Perspiration. — The 
fabrics  which  come  in  contact  with  the  body  are 
often  weakened  by  perspiration  unless  a  good 
resistant  material  is  used.  To  test  the  fabric 
for  resistance,  place  a  sample  in  a  bath  of  25% 
to  40%  acetic  acid  warmed  to  the  temperature 
of  the  body,  98.6°  F.  Dip  the  sample  a  number 
of  times  and  dry  without  rinsing  between  clean 


COTTON  27 

blotting  papers.  Note  whether  or  not  the  color 
is  affected. 

Testing  for  Percentage  of  Shrinkage. — Pour 
boiling  water  over  a  sample  and  leave  it  im- 
mersed over  night.  Dry  at  a  moderate  tem- 
perature without  stretching.  Press.  Measure 
before  and  after  treatment.  Try  samples  of 
lavender,  pale  blue,  pink,  green,  and  brown, 
to  show:  (a)  Fastness  to  sunlight,  (b)  Fast- 
ness to  laundering. 

Wearing  Qualities  Compared  with  Price. — 
Cotton,  being  cheapest,  is  not  adulterated  with 
any  of  the  other  fibers,  but  an  inferior  grade  of 
material  is  often  made  to  appear  heavier  by 
the  addition  of  dressing.  Starch,  glue,  dextrine, 
etc.,  are  used,  and  they  may  add  greatly  to  the 
weight  of  the  cloth.  The  spaces  between  threads 
are  filled  and  a  good  finish  is  given  to  the  ma- 
terial, but  after  washing,  the  cloth  loses  both  in 
weight  and  firmness.  This  dressing  may  be 
detected  in  thin  fabrics  by  holding  them  up  to 
the  light,  then  the  starch  will  show  between  the 
threads.  It  may  also  be  detected  by  rubbing  the 
material  in  the  hands  when  it  is  freed  from  part 
of  the  dressing  and  the  firmness  of  the  cloth 
may  be  determined.  Still  another  method  of 


28  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

determining  the  amount  of  sizing  present  is  that 
of  washing  a  sample  of  the  material  thoroughly 
and  comparing  it  with  the  original. 

If  material  is  to  give  good  service,  the  warp 
and  weft  threads  must  be  in  good  proportion. 
Materials  having  some  heavy  threads,  as  dimi- 
ties, or  having  a  much  heavier  warp  than  weft 
are  apt  to  split  owing  to  the  unequal  tension. 
Materials  which  have  been  on  the  market  for 
some  time  may  have  become  weakened  by  the 
action  of  the  chemicals  which  were  used  in  the 
bleaching  or  in  the  sizing. 

The  strength  may  be  judged  by  the  following 
test :  Place  the  thumbs  together  and  press  them 
down  hard  on  the  material,  holding  the  cloth 
tight  underneath.  Consider  the  amount  of 
strain  resisted. 

In  choosing  between  two  grades  of  the  same 
type  of  material,  consider  the  additional  wear- 
ing qualities  obtained  for  a  slight  additional 
cost.  Often  a  piece  of  material  costing  two  or 
three  cents  more  will  wear  twice  or  three  times 
as  long  as  the  cheaper  material.  This  is  not 
always  true,  however,  as  sometimes  a  large  part 
of  the  price  is  represented  in  the  novelty  of 
weave,  design,  or  color.  Obtain  three  sets  of 


COTTON  29 

samples  of  different  types  of  cotton  materials 
which  illustrate  the  above,  and  study  them  care- 
fully. 

The  firmness  of  the  weave  and  the  quality  of 
the  fiber  are  always  important  factors  to  con- 
sider. To  judge  the  quality  of  fiber,  untwist  a 
thread  of  the  cloth  and  notice  the  length  of  the 
separate  fibers.  A  long  fiber  indicates  strength 
and,  therefore,  -good  wearing  qualities,  other 
things  being  equal. 

Always  consider  width  as  well  as  price  in 
comparing  two  pieces  of  material.  The  wider 
material  will  usually  cut  to  better  advantage, 
and  may,  therefore,  be  more  economical. 

In  purchasing  dotted  Swiss  be  sure  to  deter- 
mine whether  the  dots  are  embroidered  or 
i 

merely  printed  or  pasted  on.  Printed  dots  are 
more  likely  to  fade  and  those  made  of  paste  be- 
come discolored  by  ironing  and  wear  off. 


CHAPTEB  II 
WOOL 

Wool.— The  soft,  curly  covering  of  sheep  and 
of  similar  animals,  has  been  used  from  earliest 
times,  and  its  production  and  value  are  increas- 
ing steadily.  Unfortunately  the  production  is 
not  keeping  pace  with  the  increasing  demand,  as 
will  be  explained  later. 

The  great  wool  producing  countries  are  Aus- 
tralia, South  America,  the  United  States,  and 
South  Africa.  Wyoming,  Montana,  Idaho,  and 
Oregon  produce  the  largest  part  of  the  wool 
raised  in  the  United  States.  Australia  is  the 
largest  producer  of  the  finest  wool,  although 
Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  and  West  Virginia  furnish 
a  fine  quality  which  is  a  close  rival. 

The  quality  of  the  wool  depends  upon  the 
breed  of  the  sheep,  feed,  care,  climate,  and  the 
part  of  the  animal  from  which  it  comes.  The 
best  wool  in  soundness  of  fiber,  softness,  and 
evenness  of  length  comes  from  the  shoulders 

30 


WOOL  31 

and  sides  of  the  animal.  The  various  kinds  of 
wool  used  in  commerce  are  named  either  from 
the  breed  of  the  sheep  or  the  locality  in  which 
the  sheep  is  raised,  as :  Australian  wools,  New 


COMPARISON  OF  DIFFERENT  VARIETIES  OF  WOOL 

Zealand  wools,  Cashmere,  Shropshiredown,  and 
Merino  wools. 

The  wool  fiber  is  composed  of  three  parts 
which  may  be  seen  under  the  microscope : 

(a)     Epidermis,  or  outer  surface,  which  is 


32  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

composed  of  overlapping  scales,  similar  to  those 
on  a  pine  cone. 

(b)  Cortex,  which  consists  of  a  layer  of  cel- 
lular fibrous  substance,  which  gives  the  fiber 
its  chief  strength  and  elasticity. 

(c)  Medulla,  or  marrow  of  the  fiber. 

The  scales  give  wool  its  peculiar  felting 
property,  due  to  the  interlocking  of  the  project- 
ing edges  of  the  scales — the  deeper  the  scales 
fit  into  one  another,  the  closer  becomes  the 
structure  of  the  material  This  property  is 
taken  advantage  of  in  the  manufacture  of  such 
materials  as  broadcloth.  It  is  also  this  prop- 
erty which  necessitates  extra  care  in  the  laun- 
dering of  woolen  materials  to  prevent  shrink- 
age which  is  simply  another  name  for  the  inter- 
locking of  the  scales. 

The  difference  between  hair  and  wool  is 
largely  in  this  layer  of  horny  scales.  On  hair 
they  are  much  less  marked,  and  often  do  not 
project  at  all  at  the  edges.  The  distinction  is 
sometimes  made  that  hair  is  straight  and  wool 
is  curly,  or  that  hair  is  stiff er  than  wool;  but 
here  again  the  difference  is  sometimes  greater 
between  the  extremes  of  wool  or  the  extremes 


WOOL  33 

of  hairs  than  between  a  given  wool  and  a  given 
hair. 

The  amount  of  luster  which  wool  has  also  de- 
pends on  the  scales.  If  the  edges  of  the  scales 
are  rough  and  uneven,  the  fiber  as  a  whole  will 
not  be  so  smooth  and  lustrous  as  a  fiber  in 
which  the  scales  are  more  nearly  regular  and 
reflect  the  light  evenly.  The  fiber  from  the  An- 
gora goat,  which  has  less  prominent  scales,  has 
greater  luster  than  the  wool  from  most  sheep, 
but  there  is  also  greater  variation  in  different 
breeds  of  sheep. 

The  length  of  the  wool  fiber  varies  from  one 
to  eight  inches,  depending  upon  its  location  on 
the  animal  and  upon  the  breed.  The  wool 
fibers  may  be  roughly  classified  as  long-staple 
wools  or  "tops"  from  which  worsteds  are  or- 
dinarily made,  short-staple  wools  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  woolens,  and  the  miscellaneous 
or  carpet  and  blanket  wools. 

This  classification  is  based  on  the  length,  fine- 
ness, and  felting  qualities  of  the  staples. 

The  hygroscopicity  of  wool,  the  property  of 
absorbing  water  without  feeling  wet,  is  greater 
than  that  of  any  other  textile  fiber.  It  varies 


34  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

in  different  wools  from  eight  to  fourteen  per 
cent. 

In  elasticity  it  is  next  to  silk.  This  is  the 
property  which  makes  woolen  materials  keep 
their  shape  better  than  linen  or  cotton. 

Wool  is  a  poor  conductor  of  both  heat  and 
electricity;  therefore,  it  keeps  the  body  evenly 
warm  and  prevents  rapid  cooling.  It  feels 
warm  to  the  touch  because  it  does  not  conduct 
the  heat  away  from  the  body.  Woolen  shirts 
are  worn  by  men  working  around  furnaces  be- 
cause the  wool  forms  a  blanket  of  air  spaces 
which  hold  warmed  air  and  moisture,  thus  pre- 
venting the  extreme  heat  from  reaching  the 
body. 

The  tensile  strength  varies  so  greatly  that 
no  definite  statement  can  be  made. 

Dilute  acids  have  no  appreciable  effect  on 
wool.  Concentrated  acids  totally  destroy  it. 
With  organic  acids  wool  is  usually  reactive, 
readily  absorbing  oxalic,  tartaric,  acetic,  and 
such  acids. 

Wool  is  quite  sensitive  to  alkalies,  so  much  so 
that  a  5%  solution  of  potassium  or  sodium  hy- 
droxide, at  a  boiling  temperature,  will,  in  fif- 
teen minutes,  completely  dissolve  the  fiber. 


WOOL  35 

The  use  on  wool  of  a  strong  soap,  which 
means  a  soap  containing  a  large  amount  of  free 
alkali,  increases  its  shrinkage,  for  it  softens 
the  fibers  and  causes  the  projecting  scales  to 
become  more  prominent,  thereby  inducing  a 
greater  interlocking  of  fibers,  with  the  conse- 
quent thickening  of  the  material  and  decrease  in 
the  size  of  the  garment.  Dilute  solutions  of 
borax,  ammonia,  or  a  neutral  soap  if  used  at  a 
low  temperature  have  little,  if  any,  injurious 
effect.  Another  point  to  remember  in  the  laun- 
dering of  wool  is  to  keep  the  temperature  as 
nearly  as  possible  the  same  throughout  the 
washing  and  drying.  The  alternate  expansion 
and  contraction  of  the  scales  caused  by  differ- 
ent temperatures  increases  the  interlocking  and, 
therefore,  the  shrinkage. 

Wool  is  the  most  reactive  of  all  the  textile 
fibers  to  coloring  matter.  Consequently  it  may 
be  dyed  easily  and  the  colors  are  usually 
"fast." 

Shearing  in  the  United  States  is  usually  done 
by  experts  who  begin  work  in  Southern  Cali- 
fornia, Texas  and  neighboring  states  about  May 
and  work  on  up  through  Wyoming,  Montana, 


36  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

Idaho,  Oregon,  and  then  into  Canada,  in  this 
way  being  busy  most  of  the  year. 

Most  of  the  wool  on  the  market  comes  in  the 
form  of  fleece  wool,  the  product  of  one  year's 
growth.  The  fleeces  are  rolled  in  bundles  as 
they  come  to  the  mill,  and  are  sorted  according 
to  quality  and  length  of  fiber,  the  wool  from 
the  shoulders  and  sides  being,  usually,  the  choic- 
est part  of  the  fleece.  After  sorting,  the  wool 
is  washed  to  remove  the  grease  and  dirt ;  dried 
and  oiled  to  render  it  soft ;  burred  and  carbon- 
ized to  remove  seeds,  leaves,  and  burrs;  and 
blended,  by  which  means  a  more  even  yarn  is 
produced.  After  the  wool  is  blended  it  comes 
out  in  a  soft,  fleecy  condition,  ready  to  be 
carded. 

The  carding  machine  finishes  the  cleaning, 
separates  and  straightens  the  fibers,  and  deliv- 
ers the  wool  in  soft  strands  called  slivers. 

If  the  wool  is  to  be  used  for  worsted  material 
it  must  be  further  straightened  and  have  the 
short  ends  or  "noils"  removed  by  a  process 
called  combing.  This  leaves  only  the  good  long 
fibers  lying  practically  parallel  to  each  other. 

The  combing  process  is  unnecessary  in  the 
manufacture  of  woolen  materials  as  the  yarns 


A  PAIR  OF  HAND  CARDS 
37 


38  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

are  composed  of  short  fibers  which  cross  and 
are  somewhat  matted. 

The  processes  of  drawing  and  spinning  draw 
out  and  twist  the  long  soft  rolls  until  the  thread 
is  reduced  to  the  size  required. 

Before  weaving,  the  warp  yarn  is  sized  by  a 
starch  preparation  to  enable  the  threads  to 
withstand  the  friction  due  to  the  constant  weav- 
ing back  and  forth  of  the  weft  thread.  It  is 
then  placed  on  the  loom,  the  warp  running 
lengthwise.  The  filling  thread,  or  weft,  is 
wound  on  a  bobbin,  which  is  fastened  in  a  shut- 
tle, allowing  the  thread  to  unwind  as  it  is  passed 
back  and  forth.  As  fast  as  the  weft  passes 
through  between  the  warp  threads,  which  are 
separated  in  different  groups  to  form  the  pat- 
tern, it  is  beaten  up  tight  against  the  preceding 
thread,  thereby  keeping  the  cloth  firm  and  even. 

Dyeing  is  done  either  in  the  yarn  or  in  the 
piece,  the  piece-dyed  materials  being  of  a  single 
color,  while  wools  dyed  in  the  yarn  allow  va- 
rious combinations. 

When  cloth  comes  from  the  loom,  it  is  in  an 
imperfect  condition  for  use;  knots  tied  in  the 
thread  are  carefully  drawn  to  the  surface  and 
clipped  off;  threads  are  woven  in  where  any 


WOOL  39 

have  been  left  out ;  repairs  are  made  if  neces- 
sary. This  part  of  the  finishing  must  be  done 
very  carefully  for  worsted  materials  as  the  im- 
perfections will  not  be  covered  by  a  napped 
surface  as  in  woolen  materials.  The  beauty  of 


1.  WOOLEN  GOODS  AS  IT  COMES  FROM  THE  LOOM.    2.  SAME, 
AFTER  SHRINKING.    3.  TEASEL. 

woolen  goods  lies  largely  in  the  finish  of  the 
cloth ;  and  of  worsted  goods,  in  the  weave,  while 
the  object  of  fulling  woolen  materials  is  often 
to  obliterate  it  entirely.  The  cloth  is  pressed 
over  a  heated  roll  to  give  it  a  permanent  finish 
and  luster  before  it  goes  to  the  retailers. 

The  finishing  of  a  material  such  as  broad- 
cloth, where  the  weave  is  entirely  covered  by 


40  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

a  napped  surface,  is  an  interesting  process  as 
it  shows  the  severe  treatment  which  is  necessary 
to  obtain  the  highly  lustrous  finish.  This  in 
turn  throws  light  on  the  high  price  of  good  chif- 
fon broadcloth,  as  a  good  quality  of  wool  must 
be  used  to  withstand  the  treatment,  and  the  ex- 
tra labor  also  adds  to  the  cost. 

The  cloth  as  it  comes  from  the  loom  is  loosely 
woven  and  much  wider  than  desired  when  fin- 
jished.  It  is  then  churned  in  hot  soap  solutions 
!to  felt  or  shrink  the  material.  This  process  is 
repeated  until  the  desired  result  is  obtained. 
i  Napping,  which  raises  the  ends  of  the  fibers 

'on  the  face  of  the  cloth,  is  done  by  means  of  a 

i 

rwire  teasel  gig.  The  teasel,  a  seed  receptacle 
of  a  vegetable,  is  about  the  shape  of  a  pine  cone, 
and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  no  mechanical 
contrivance  has  ever  been  invented  to  equal  it 
for  the  purpose.  The  nap  which  has  been  raised 
by  the  teasel  is  sheared  or  cut  to  a  proper  length 
by  a  machine  which  works  like  a  lawn  mower. 
The  cloth  is  pressed,  and,  if  a  high  luster  is 
desired,  it  may  be  necessary  to  repeat  the  nap- 
ping and  shearing  before  it  is  wound  upon  cop- 
per cylinders  and  steam  is  forced  through  it  at 
a  high  pressure. 


A  WOOLEN  YARN  UNTWISTED  A  WORSTED  YARN  UNTWISTED 

41 


42  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

The  difference  between  worsteds  and  woolens 
is  principally  that  in  the  threads  or  yarns  from 
which  worsteds  are  made  the  fibers  of  the  wool 
lie  parallel  to  one  another,  combed  wool  being 
used  from  which  the  short  fibers  have  been  re- 
moved; and  woolens  are  made  from  yarns  in 
which  the  fibers  cross  and  are  matted  and  inter- 
mixed. When  finished,  the  effect  of  worsteds 
and  woolens  is  materially  different.  Upon  ex- 
amination it  will  be  found  that  a  worsted  thread 
resembles  a  wire  in  evenness,  while  the  woolen 
thread  is  uneven  and  irregular. 

A  worsted  fabric  when  finished  has  a  clear, 
bright,  well-defined  pattern,  and  seems  close  and 
firmly  woven;  while  woolen  cloths  are  softer, 
they  are  more  elastic,  the  colors  are  more 
blended,  the  threads  are  not  so  easily  distin- 
guishable, and  there  is  a  duller  effect  in  general. 

Owing  to  the  rapidly  changing  fashions  to- 
day, dress  materials  are  frequently  cast  aside 
when  only  partially  worn.  This  naturally 
greatly  increases  the  demand  for  new  fabrics 
and,  therefore,  for  raw  wool. 

Statistics  from  1909  give  approximately  220,- 
000,000  Ibs.  as  the  amount  of  new  wool,  freed 
from  grease,  used  in  the  United  States.  Later 


WOOL  43 

figures  show  that  about  250,000,000  Ibs.  are  used 
a  year  at  the  present  time.  Estimating  the 
present  population  as  about  90,000,000  the 
amount  of  raw  wool  per  capita  is  less  than  three 
pounds.  Considering  the  waste  in  manufacture 
(100  Ibs.  of  raw  wool  being  required  for  85  Ibs. 
of  cloth),  and  also  the  proportion  which  must 
be  used  for  blankets,  carpets,  rugs,  felts,  and 
upholstery,  it  is  apparent  that  the  supply  of 
new  wool  is  not  equal  to  the  demand.  To  make 
up  for  this  shortage,  shoddy  and  cotton  have 
come  into  general  use. 

Shoddy  is  the  term  which  has  come  to  be  ap- 
plied to  all  reclaimed  .wool  which  has  already 
served  one  or  more  periods  of  usefulness.  The 
term  is  unfortunate  as  it  suggests  only  decep- 
tion, sham,  and  fraud.  No  objection  is  raised 
to  the  use  of  other  waste  product,  so  why  should 
there  be  in  this  case?  The  only  just  cause  for 
complaint  is  found  in  the  abuse  rather  than  the 
use  of  the  so-called  shoddy. 

The  wool  is  reclaimed  from  wool  rags,  tail- 
ors' clippings,  and  scraps  of  various  kinds. 
These  are  dusted,  cleaned,  and  then  torn  apart 
by  machines  designed  especially  for  that  pur- 
pose. If  any  cotton  is  present,  the  mass  is 


44  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

treated  with  dilute  acid  to  decompose  the  veg- 
etable matter,  leaving  only  the  wool.  This  is 
washed,  dried,  and  carded,  preparing  it  for 
spinning  a  second  time.  The  quality  of  the 
shoddy  depends  upon  the  quality  and  value  of 
the  material  from  which  it  is  made.  The  best 
quality  is  obtained  from  knitted  goods  and  wor- 
sted materials,  if  good  wool  was  used  in  the 
first  place.  To  be  sure,  it  is  not  so  strong  as  it 
was  originally.  The  strain  undergone  in  the 
various  processes  through  which  it  has  passed 
has  weakened  the  fibers  to  a  greater  or  lesser 
degree.  Yet  in  many  cases  it  is  not  "worn  out" 
by  any  means.  The  much  felted  woolen  ma- 
terials give  the  short  inferior  fibers.  It  has 
been  said  that,  "  Anything  with  two  ends  may  be 
spun."  When  we  find  fibers  not  more  than  a 
fourth  of  an  inch  in  length  we  realize  the  truth 
of  that  statement  and  wish  the  manufacturers 
were  a  little  less  clever.  These  short  fibers  soon 
become  loosened  or  wear  off,  leaving  the  gar- 
ment "threadbare"  as  we  say. 

The  better  quality  may  contain  good  long 
fibers  ready  to  do  good  service  again.  The 
processes  through  which  it  has  gone  thoroughly 
sterilize  the  material,  so  there  is  no  possible 


WOOL 


45 


POOR  QUALITY  SHODDY 


BETTER  QUALITY  SHODDY 


46  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

danger  of  contamination.  We  may  not  like  the 
idea  of  wearing  clothes  made  from  material 
which  has  been  used  by  someone  else,  but  the 
prejudice  is  not  justified,  as  the  use  of  these  re- 
claimed materials  has  clothed  many  people 
much  more  cheaply  and  warmly  than  would  oth- 
erwise be  possible.  In  fact,  it  is  the  only  way 
in  which  the  insufficient  supply  of  new  wool  may 
be  pieced  out  and  made  to  go  around.  Should 
this  material  be  wasted,  many  persons  would  be 
unable  to  afford  proper  clothing,  as  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  estimate  what  the  price  of  wool  would  be. 
To  quote  from  an  article  in  a  trade  journal: 
"This  is  no  excuse  for  dishonesty,  false  labeling 
or  misrepresentation.  Good,  honest,  sound,  and 
well  wearing  cloths  can  be  made,  are  made,  and 
sold  on  their  merits  at  prices  i within  the  reach 
of  all'  and  all  that  is  needed  is  that  tli^y  may 
be  represented  for  what  they  are,  in  the  name  of 
common  honesty. " 

Because  there  will  always  be  unscrupulous 
manufacturers  who  will  misrepresent  their 
goods,  there  should  be  pure  textile  laws  requir- 
ing proper  labeling  of  all  materials.  A  copy 
of  one  of  the  specifications  used  by  the  War  De- 
partment in  ordering  materials  for  the  army 


WOOL  47 

gives  us  an  idea  of  textile  standards.  Until  such 
laws  are  secured  we  must  learn  to  judge  for 
ourselves  or  expect  to  be  cheated  occasionally. 
As  a  usual  thing,  when  paying  a  reasonable 
price  for  wool  materials  in  a  reputable  store, 
good  value  may  be  expected.  There  are  excep- 
tions, however,  which  will  be  cited  later. 

Cotton  is  also  used  quite  largely  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  woolen  and  worsted  materials  to 
help  make  up  for  the  shortage  in  wool.  The  cot- 
ton is  mixed  with  the  wool  in  the  following 
ways: 

(a)  Cotton  combed  with  the  wool  and  spun 
together. 

(b)  Cotton  covered  with  wool  so  that  the 
cotton  is  not  visible. 

(c)  Cotton  used  alone  as  the  warp  or  weft 
threads,  usually  the  former. 

(d)  Cotton  threads  twisted  in  with  the  wool. 

SPECIFICATIONS  OF  WAR  DEPARTMENT 

WAR  DEPARTMENT 
Office  of  the  Quartermaster-General. 
Specifications  for  olive  drab  worsted  kersey,  16-ounce 

Wool. — For  warp  and  filling:  To  be  American, 
shorn  from  live  sheep,  free  from  kemp,  of  not  lower 


48  THE  STUDY  OF  FABEICS 

grade  than  high  half-blood,  staple  to  be  of  good  char- 
acter, sound,  true  and  well  conditioned,  possessing  in 
addition  all  the  necessary  qualities  to  produce  the 
hereinafter-described  requirements.  The  admixture 
of  wastes,  reworked  wools,  vegetable  fibers,  or  other 
impurities  is  prohibited.  (Broken  sliver  from  the 
combs  and  drawing  frames  made  at  the  time  this  yarn 
is  being  manufactured  not  to  be  considered  waste.) 

Color. — To  be  a  mixture  of  an  olive  drab  shade,  as 
represented  by  the  sealed  standard  sample.  The  va- 
rious colors  required  to  form  this  mixture  may  be 
dyed  in  the  wool,  slubbing,  or  top,  as  desired,  and  to 
be  reasonably  clean  before  mixing.  The  colors  must 
be  sufficiently  fast  to  withstand  milling,  perspiration, 
and  climatic  influences,  such  as  sunlight,  air,  and  ex- 
posure incident  to  the  military  service. 

Tests. — All  deliveries  shall  be  subjected  to  the  fol- 
lowing official  tests,  chemical  and  otherwise : 

(a)  Boiling  for  ten  minutes  in  a  solution  composed 
of  80  grains  of  neutral  soap  to  one  pint  of  water. 

(b)  Boiling  for  ten  minutes  in  a  solution  containing 
10  grains  of  dry  carbonate  of  soda  to  one  pint  of 
water. 

(c)  To  stand  an  exposure  to  the  weather    (roof 
test)  for  thirty  days. 

(d)  Soak  for  twenty-four  hours  in  lactic  acid,  spe- 
cific gravity,  1.21  U.  S.  P.  Temperature  about  70°  F. 

(e)  Soak  for  twenty-four  hours  in  a  solution  com- 
posed of  three  drams  (avoirdupois)  of  citric  acid  to 
two  fluid  ounces  of  water.  Temperature  about  70°  F. 

To  judge  results  correctly  the  specimens  that  have 
been  subjected  to  the  above  acid  test  must  be  washed 


WOOL  49 

with  soap  in  warm  water.  In  all  these  tests  no  greater 
changes  of  color  must  take  place  than  would  be  shown 
under  similar  tests  made  on  the  sealed  standard 
sample. 

The  regulation  size  of  the  above  samples  shall  be  six 
(6)  by  four  (4)  inches.  In  making  tests  "d"  and 
"  e "  the  samples  shall  be  placed  in  a  tray  or  vessel  of 
such  a  character  that  will  allow  them  to  lie  flat  within, 
so  that  they  may  be  completely  immersed  in  their  re- 
spective solutions. 

Width. — To  be  not  less  than  fifty-four  (54)  nor 
more  than  fifty-six  (56)  inches  wide  independent  of 
selvages. 

Weave. — To  be  a  four  harness,  two-up  and  two- 
down  weave,  as  is  the  sealed  standard  sample. 

Threads. — Warp  to  contain  not  less  than  3,780  ends 
of  single  spun  (combed)  warp  twist  yarn. 

Filling. — To  contain  not  less  than  sixty-two  picks  of 
single  worsted  spun  yarn  per  inch.  Should  an  occa- 
sional piece  (not  more  than  one  in  ten  of  each  deliv- 
ery) be  found  to  meet  specification  requirements  in  all 
other  respects,  but  to  count  not  lower  than  fifty-nine 
picks,  it  shall  be  acceptable. 

Weight. — To  weigh  not  less  than  sixteen  ounces  per 
linear  yard.  Pieces  weighing  less  than  sixteen  ounces 
per  linear  yard  shall  be  rejected,  unless  when  sub- 
jected to  a  conditioned  or  dry-fiber  test,  the  weight 
thus  found  with  11  per  cent  added  (for  normal  re- 
gain of  moisture  allowable)  will  come  up  to  over  six- 
teen ounces.  At  the  discretion  of  the  contracting  offi- 
cer, pieces  weighing  sixteen  ounces  and  over  may  be 
conditioned,  and  if  found  to  weigh  less  than  fourteen 


50  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

and  five-tenths  ounces  when  the  weight  becomes  con- 
stant in  the  conditioning  oven,  they  shall  be  rejected. 

Strength. — To  be  capable  of  sustaining  a  strain  of 
sixty  pounds  to  the  inch  warp-way,  and  fifty-five 
pounds  to  the  inch  filling-way.  The  strength  test  to 
be  made  on  a  dynamometer,  great  care  being  exercised 
-to  see  that  the  material  is  placed  in  the  jaws  of  the 
same  at  exactly  right  angles  to  the  opposite  system 
of  threads.  Should  an  occasional  piece  on  delivery 
(not  more  than  one  in  ten),  practically  perfect  in  all 
other  respects,  show  not  more  than  three  pounds  less 
breaking  strain  in  the  warp,  and  not  more  than  two 
pounds  less  breaking  strain  in  the  filling,  it  shall  be 
acceptable. 

Finish. — To  be  well  milled,  thoroughly  cleaned,  free 
from  crocking,  moderately  shorn,  and  like  or  equal 
in  all  respects  of  finish  to  the  sealed  standard  sample. 

Adopted  October  31,  1906. 

C.  F.  HUMPHREY, 
Quartermaster-General,  U.  S.  Army. 

Note. — Samples  of  wool  (warp  and  filling)  in  the 
clean  state,  also  samples  of  wools  after  properly  mixed 
to  produce  shade  (warp  and  filling),  as  well  as  a  skein 
of  not  less  than  120  yards  of  each  yarn  (warp  and 
filling)  shall  be  delivered  to  the  contracting  officer 
with  the  first  delivery  of  goods,  and  with  each  5,000 
yards. 

By  direction  of  the  Quartermaster-General,  the 
articles  to  be  furnished  under  these  specifications 
shall,  in  all  points  not  covered  by  these  specifications, 
be  like  and  equal  to  the  standard  sample  in  all  re- 
spects. 


CHAPTER  III 

TESTS  FOR  WOOLEN  MATERIALS 

During  the  last  century  industrial  conditions 
have  changed  materially.  In  the  early  days  the 
cloth  was  manufactured  in  the  home.  There 
was  no  question  of  adulteration  then.  With  the 
introduction  of  the  factory  system  came  keen 
competition,  with  the  result  that  a  piece  of  '  *  all 
wool"  cloth  may  be  one-half  or -three-fourths 
cotton.  The  field  of  textile  knowledge  has 
grown  remarkably,  while  the  knowledge  pos- 
sessed by  women  concerning  textile  fabrics  has 
decreased.  The  natural  result  has  been  that 
women  have  come  to  depend  on  the  salesman 
for  information  concerning  the  material  about 
to  be  purchased.  Various  experiences  have  led 
to  the  belief  that  the  salesmen  are  usually  hon- 
est but  often  most  woefully  ignorant.  They 
should  be  more  intelligent  concerning  the  mate- 
rials offered  for  sale ;  but  since  they  are  not  it 
devolves  upon  the  shopper  to  acquire  the  knowl- 

51 


52  THE  STUDY  OF  FABEICS 

edge  which  will  make  her  competent  to  judge 
for  herself. 

"All  wool  and  a  yard  wide"  has  come  to  be 
synonymous  with  good  quality  in  the  minds  of 
many.  That  is  a  misconception,  as  a  material 
may  be  "all  wool  and  a  yard  and  a  half  wide" 
and  a  poor  material  at  the  same  time.  The 
quality  of  the  wool  and  the  weave  of  the  mate- 
rial are  fully  as  important  as  the  fact  of  its  be- 
ing all  wool.  "Pure  dye"  was  thought  by  a 
tailor  of  more  than  ordinary  intelligence  to  in- 
dicate purity  of  the  fabrics.  He  was  amazed 
when  shown  the  adulteration  in  his  "pure  dye" 
materials.  These  illustrations  show  that  these 
similar  phrases  cannot  be  depended  upon  as  an 
indication  of  quality. 

To  judge  of  the  firmness  of  the  weave,  hold 
the  material  up  to  the  light.  If  the  light  shines 
through,  it  indicates  a  loose  and  open  weave 
unable  to  withstand  strain.  The  tensile  strength 
test  given  below  should  also  be  used  in  this  con- 
nection. The  "feel"  of  the  wool,  to  be  ac- 
quired by  practice,  tells  much  in  regard  to  qual- 
ity. Notice  carefully  the  difference  in  the 
"feel"  of  various  qualities  of  blue  serges. 
Threads  should  be  unraveled  and  the  length  of 


TESTS  FOR  WOOLEN  MATERIALS    53 

the  separate  fibers  noted.  Long  fibers  usually 
indicate  a  good  quality  of  wool  and  extremely 
short  ones  indicate  shoddy. 

Tensile  Strength. — The  warp  yarn  in  a  mate- 
rial is  always  more  tightly  twisted  and  stronger 
than  the  weft  or  filling  yarn.  This  is  necessary 
because  of  the  greater  strain  on  the  warp  in 
wearing.  In  cheap  materials,  frequently,  there 
is  more  difference  than  is  necessary  between  the 
strength  of  the  warp  and  weft  yarns.  This  may 
be  detected  by  exposing  the  warp  and  weft 
threads  separately.  When  considerable  differ- 
ence is  found  it  is  an  indication  of  poor  wear- 
ing quality,  as  the  weft  threads  will  not  be  able 
to  stand  the  strain  of  the  warp. 

To  test  the  tensile  strength,  place  the  thumbs 
together  and  press  them  down  hard  on  the  ma- 
terial, holding  the  cloth  tight  underneath.  Do 
the  threads  separate  or  break  more  easily  in 
one  direction  than  the  other? 

If  the  threads  can  be  separated  by  the  thumbs 
in  this  way,-  the  material  will  not  give  good  serv- 
ice if  subjected  to  hard  wear. 

It  is  usually  found  economical  in  the  end  to 
buy  good  material.  The  extra  expenditure  of 
$.25  or  $.50  a  yard  will  amount  to  little  in  the 


54  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

cost  of  a  garment,  yet  it  may  double  or  treble 
its  value.  In  the  case  of  a  garment  which  will 
be  worn  only  a  few  times,  because  of  the  rapidly 
changing  styles,  a  cheaper  material  may  serve 
the  purpose  fully  as  well.  The  use  to  which  the 
garment  is  to  be  put  should  always  be  consid- 
ered when  purchasing  the  material.  If  service 
is  an  important  item,  remember  that  pennies 
saved  may  mean  dollars  lost. 

Appearance  and  feeling  can  no  longer  be 
trusted  absolutely,  but  the  trained  hand  and 
eye  may  do  much  in  judging  of  the  quality  of 
materials.  Woven  fabrics  made  of  wool  should 
be  soft  when  gathered  up  in  the  hand,  and 
should  spring  back  when  the  hold  is  loosened. 

Wool  should  feel  warm  and  springy.  There 
is  a  great  difference  in  the  "feel"  of  different 
qualities  of  wool.  The  difference  is  hard  to 
describe,  but  can  easily  be  detected  with  prac- 
tice. 

Take  a  small  piece  of  wool  material  and  ex- 
pose the  warp  and  weft  threads  separately. 
After  some  practice  the  cotton  can  be  quite 
readily  detected  unless  it  is  covered  with  wool, 
as  is  often  the  case.  Wool  threads  are  more 


TESTS  FOE  WOOLEN  MATERIALS     55 

curly  and  elastic  than  cotton.  White  wool  usu- 
ally has  a  creamy  tint  while  cotton  is  dead  white. 
Cheap  shepherd  checked  materials  usually 
contain  some  cotton.  The  warp  may  be  cotton 
and  the  weft  all  or  part  wool.  Such  materials 
clearly  show  the  difference  between  the  appear- 


WARP  AND  WEFT  THREADS  EXPOSED  SEPARATELY 

ance  of  wool  and  cotton,  especially  of  white  wool 
and  cotton. 

In  a  plain  colored  material  the  cotton  may 
sometimes  be  detected  by  the  difference  in  the 
way  the  threads  have  taken  the  dye.  It  is  al- 
most impossible  to  dye  cotton  and  wool  exactly 
the  same  color.  For  this  reason  cotton  is  used 
more  often  in  materials  of  mixed  colors. 


56  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

Burning  to  Detect  Cotton. — This  is  the  most 
useful  in  determining  whether  certain  threads 
are  wool  or  cotton.  If  cotton  and  wool  have 
been  spun  together,  this  test  is  not  reliable,  al- 
though something  may  be  learned  if  the  yarn 
is  unraveled  so  that  the  fibers  may  be  burned 
separately.  Cotton  burns  quickly,  leaving  a 
small  amount  of  ash  and  no  perceptible  odor. 
Wool  burns  slowly,  leaving  a  black  ash  in  the 
form  of  a  ball  at  the  edge  of  the  flame.  The 
odor  of  burning  wool  is  that  characteristic  of 
burning  bones  or  feathers. 

Experiment. — Select  a  number  of  materials 
which  it  is  thought  may  contain  cotton.  Burn 
the  warp  and  weft  threads  and  threads  of  dif- 
ferent colors  separately.  If  a  thread  when 
burned  gives  off  no  odor  of  burning  wool,  it  may 
be  taken  as  a  strong  indication  that  it  is  all  cot- 
ton. However,  the  odor  of  burning  wool  does 
not  indicate  that  the  thread  is  all  wool. 

Chemical  Test  for  Any  Mixed  Cotton  and 
Wool  Fabric.— Boil  a  sample  for  15  minutes  in 
a  5%  solution  of  potassium  hydroxide.  If  it  is 
all  wool,  the  entire  piece  will  be  destroyed ;  if 
it  is  mixed  with  cotton,  the  cotton  will  be  left 
and  the  wool  destroyed:  Should  there  be  a  res- 


i 


Original  Residue 

54  inches  wide — $1.25  per  yard 


iL*£.  k5  ^  ij  S.^. 2£^       -    ^  ~        ^.   -S-  ..:£:•  S;.  ;^T;^-  :>r  -^'  -y- 


Original  Residue 

36  inches  wide — 50  cents  per  yard 

MATERIALS  BEFORE  AND  AFTER  BOILING  IN  THE  LYE 

SOLUTION 

57 


58  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

idue,  it  must  be  thoroughly  washed,  first  in 
acidulated  water  (vinegar  in  water  may  be 
used),  then  in  clear  water  and  dried  on  blotting 
paper.  This  residue  represents  the  cotton  in 
the  cloth.  If  mixed  with  wool  in  spinning,  an 
open  material  will  be  left ;  if  the  warp  is  made 
of  cotton  it  alone  will  remain.  The  weft  will 
be  destroyed. 

In  place  of  the  potassium  hydroxide  (KOH.) 
which  is  the  alkali  used  in  the  laboratory,  ordi- 
nary household  lye  may  be  used.  From  one  to 
two  level  teaspoons  of  lye  to  one  pint  of  water 
should  be  used.  (The  lye  becomes  weakened 
on  exposure  to  the  air.)  A  small  sample  of  the 
cloth  to  be  tested  should  be  placed  in  a  granite 
dish,  well  covered  with  the  solution  and  allowed 
to  boil  gently  to  prevent  rapid  evaporation  and 
consequently  strengthening  of  the  solution. 
The  use  of  a  granite  dish  is  emphasized  as  the 
alkali  will  act  on  some  metals,  especially  alumi- 
num. Five  minutes  at  the  boiling  point  will  be 
sufficient  when  using  the  lye  as  given  above. 

The  following  materials  may  be  tested  and 
results  of  the  tests  noted,  always  considering 
width  and  price  of  sample : 


Original  Residue 

54  inches  wide — $1.25  per  yard 


Original  Residue 

54  inches*  wide — $5  per  yard 

MATERIALS  BEFORE  AND  AFTER  BOILING  IN  THE  LYE 
SOLUTION 


60  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

2  pieces  of  white  flannel, 

2  pieces  of  serge, 

2  pieces  of  shepherd  check  (black  and 
white), 

2  pieces  of  novelty  goods  (gray  or  tan  mix- 
ture), 

1  piece  of  broadcloth  or  a  similar  material, 

2  pieces  of  any  materials  in  which  you  are 

especially  interested. 


MATERIALS  BEFORE  AND  AFTER  BOILING  IN  THE  LYE 
SOLUTION 

It  will  be  found  helpful  to  study  the  sample 
before  using  the  alkali  test,  and  to  form  some 
judgment.  After  the  test  compare  conclusions. 

Test  one  at  a  time,  but  the  same  solution  may 
be  used.  Add  water  to  replace  what  evaporates, 
and  if  testing  many  at  one  time  add  some  fresh 
solution. 

The  relation  of  cotton  to  wool  is  often  plainly 
shown  by  the  form  in  which  the  cotton  is  left. 


TESTS  FOE  WOOLEN  MATERIALS     61 

If  a  piece  of  woven  fabric  remains  we  know 
that  either  wool  was  mixed  with  the  cotton  in 
the  yarn  before  weaving  or  that  wool  was  blown 
into  the  cloth  mechanically  during  the  felting 
process  and  finished  over  to  give  the  appearance 
of  woolen  material.  Cheap  eiderdowns  are 
often  made  in  this  way.  Sometimes  the  warp 
is  cotton  and  the  weft  wool.  (A  sample  of  shep- 
herd check  showed  a  cotton  warp  with  every 
other  check  filled  in  by  cotton  weft,  therefore 
practically  one-fourth  wool.) 

Nitric  Acid  Test.  (Note. — This  test  may  only 
be  used  to  advantage  on  white  material.)  Sep- 
arately expose  the  warp  and  weft  threads  of  a 
small  piece  of  material.  Dip  in  nitric  acid  and 
then  rinse  thoroughly  in  running  water.  Wool 
assumes  a  yellow  color,  while  cotton  remains 
white.  The  yellow  color  is  due  to  the  formation 
of  xanthoproteic  acid.  If  entire  cotton  threads 
have  been  used,  this  test  shows  them  up  very 
readily. 

A  piece  of  cheap  white  eiderdown  treated  in 
this  way  showed  a  few  wool  fibers  on  the  sur- 
face, while  the  body  of  the  material  and  much  of 
the  surface  remained  white. 

A  high  power  microscope  affords  a  very  sim- 


62  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

pie  method  of  distinguishing  between  wool  and 
cotton.  (Any  high  school  doing  laboratory 
work  in  zoology  or  physiology  should  have  such 
microscopes.) 

The    following    indicate    the    presence    of 
shoddy : 

Very  short  fibers, 
Fibers  of  various  colors, 
Lack  of  uniformity  in  size  and  general  char- 
acter of  the  scales, 
Structure, 

Ends  broken  and  uneven, 
Scales  missing  on  parts  of  the  fiber. 

The  adulteration  of  a  worsted  cloth  is  more 
easily  detected  than  of  a  woolen,  as  the  entire 
thread  is  usually  replaced  by  a  similar  one  of 
cotton.  There  are  pure  wool  cloths  made  of 
"Virgin  wool"  and  nothing  else.  The  great 
family  of  serges,  worsted  cheviots,  and  certain 
white  flannels  contain  only  fleece  wool.  This 
must  be  understood  to  refer  to  good  quality  ma- 
terials demanding  a  fair  price.  It  still  remains 
a  fact,  however,  that  many  fabrics  used  for 
clothing  contain  other  materials  than  wool  fresh 
from  the  sheep  shearer,  in  many  cases  without 


TESTS  FOB  WOOLEN  MATERIALS    63 

detriment  and  in  some  cases  with  positive  ad- 
vantage. 

If  the  shoddy  is  of  fairly  good  quality,  and 
especially  if  mixed  with  some  good  new  wool, 
the  resulting  fabric  may  look  very  well  and 
give  good  service. 

For  a  garment  which  must  be  laundered  fre- 
quently the  addition  of  some  cotton  will  help  to 
prevent  shrinkage  and  perhaps  add  usefulness 
to  the  garment.  If  it  is  represented  as  being 
part  cotton  and  sold  for  a  reasonable  price,  no 
objection  can  be  raised. 

Several  pieces  of  imported  Viyella  flannel, 
sold  as  all  wool  and  non-shrinkable,  when  tested 
were  found  to  contain  50  per  cent  of  cotton. 
The  cotton  made  it  fairly  non-shrinkable,  as 
advertised,  and  increased  its  value  for  men's 
shirts  and  ladies'  shirtwaists,  but  it  was  decep- 
tive and  $.75  a  yard  was  too  much  to  pay  for 
a  material  30  inches  wide  containing  so  much 
cotton.  The  same  could  be  said  of  the  only  piece 
of  so-called  "all  wool"  white  flannel,  suitable 
for  infants'  clothes,  which  was  to  be  had  in  a 
high  class  store.  We  are  not  objecting,  there- 
fore, to  the  use  of  cotton,  but  to  paying  wool 


64  THE  STUDY  OF  FABEICS 

prices  for  cotton,  and  to  being  sold  half  cotton 
as  all  wool. 

Tests  for  Fastness  to  Dyes,  Crocking,  and 
Fading. — A  simple  and  practical  test  for  crock- 
ing is  to  rub  the  material  with  a  soft  white 
cloth  which  has  been  slightly  moistened.  If  any 
color  comes  off  on  the  white  cloth,  the  material 
will  crock. 

To  test  fastness  to  light,  the  sample  to  be 
tested  is  placed  in  a  suitable  frame  in  such  a 
manner  that  only  a  part  is  exposed.  The  frame 
is  then  placed  in  such  a  position  that  it  receives 
as  strong  sunlight  as  possible.  A  window  with 
southern  exposure  is  a  good  location  in  which 
to  hang  the  frame  containing  the  samples.  At 
the  end  of  one  week's  exposure  the  samples  are 
examined,  and  note  is  made  of  those  which 
show  any  appreciable  fading.  These  are  to  be 
classified  as  not  fast.  At  the  end  of  the  second 
week  another  examination  is  made  and  those 
samples  noted  which  show  an  appreciable  fad- 
ing. These  are  to  be  classified  as  fairly  fast.  At 
the  end  of  four  weeks  the  samples  are  once  more 
examined,  and  the  colors  fading  in  this  period 
are  noted  and  classified  as  fast,  The  samples 


TESTS  FOR  WOOLEN  MATERIALS    65 

which  show  no  fading  at  the  end  of  four  weeks 
are  classified  as  very  fast. 

The  samples  may  be  partly  covered  with  black 
paper,  fastened  securely  to  a  piece  of  wood,  and 
exposed  to  the  light  as  suggested  above. 

Test  eight  samples,  varying  in  color  and 
price,  for  crocking  and  fastness  to  light. 


CHAPTEE  IV 
SILK 

The  silk  industry  is  supposed  to  have  origi- 
nated in  China  about  2,700  B.  C.,  the  art  being 
known  only  to  the  royal  family  for  a  long  time. 
But  gradually  the  knowledge  spread  and  it  soon 
became  an  important  industry  in  China.  Later 
it  became  known  to  the  people  of  Japan,  and 
slowly  it  spread  through  Central  Asia,,  Persia, 
Arabia,  Spain,  Sicily,  and  along  the  African 
coast.  Silk  culture  was  practiced  in  Italy  in  the 
12th  century,  and  in  France  the  following  cen- 
tury. Most  of  the  silk  of  commerce  is  obtained 
from  the  cocoons  of  a  certain  kind  of  caterpillar 
called  "Bombyx  mori,"  or  mulberry  silkworm 
which  feeds  (as  the  name  implies)  upon  leaves 
of  the  mulberry  tree.  There  are  other  varieties 
of  silkworm  which  cannot  be  cultivated;  these 
are  called  wild  silkworms.  They  produce  an 
inferior  grade  of  silk  called  "tnssah."  From 
this  wild  silk  is  manufactured  the  pongee  silks 

66 


SILK  67 

of  commerce.  Most  of  the  raw  silk  on  the  mar- 
ket is  produced  in  China,  Japan,  France,  and 
Italy. 

.Throughout  the  succession  of  changes  which 
take  place  in  the  insect,  the  greatest  care  has 


SILKWORM  CULTURE 

to  be  exercised  in  regard  to  temperature,  quiet, 
and  food.  After  the  moth  lays  the  eggs  they  are 
collected  and  kept  cool  until  time  for  incubation, 
which  process  takes  place  in  heated  compart- 
ments where  the  temperature  is  carefully  regu- 
lated. The  period  of  incubation  lasts  about 
thirty  days  and  then  the  worms  hatch  out  as 


68  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

tiny  little  things  no  larger  than  the  head  of  a 
pin.  The  growth  and  development  of  the  worm 
proceeds  rapidly.  Its  food  is  chopped  mulberry 
leaves.  There  are  four  molting  stages,  at  each 
of  which  the  worm  sheds  his  old  skin,  and 
emerges  with  a  new  one.  This  is  caused  by  the 
body  growing  faster  than  the  skin.  At  the 
molting  time  the  worm  ceases  eating  and  re- 
mains in  a  torpid  state  for  a  couple  of  days, 
rests  a  short  time  to  regain  strength,  and  then 
begins  eating  with  renewed  vigor.  After  the 
fourth  and  last  molt  the  worm  is  1%  inches  long, 
but,  in  the  few  days  remaining  before  it  spins 
its  cocoon,  it  grows  to  3  inches  in  length.  As 
soon  as  it  has  attained  its  full  growth,  which 
seldom  exceeds  3  inches,  it  is  ready  to  spin  its 
cocoon.  It  stops  eating,  shrinks  nearly  an  inch 
in  length,  loses  in  weight,  turns  pale  in  color, 
and  seeks  a  place  to  which  it  can  attach  the  co- 
coon. The  web  which  it  forms  is  composed  of 
a  secretion  exuded  from  two  glands  in  the  body, 
which  unite  into  one  common  exit  tube  below 
the  mouth,  where  also  exudes  another  secretion 
which  cements  the  two  threads  together.  The 
double  silk  fiber  is  called  "fibroin,"  and  the 
silk  glue  is  called  "sericin."  This  gum  which 


SILK  69 

cements  the  fibers  together  hardens  upon  con- 
tact with  the  air. 

The  worm  forces  the  silk  fiber  out  by  contract- 
ing his  body,  turning  his  head  from  side  to  side 
and  throwing  the  fiber  around  himself  in  figure 
eight  loops,  until  layer  after  layer,  the  cocoon 
is  gradually  completed — a  process  which  re- 
quires about  three  days.  The  cocoon  is  ovoid 
in  shape  and  is  composed  of  one  continuous 
thread  which  is  400  to  1300  yards  long.  After 
the  cocoon  is  finished  the  worm  passes  from  the 
form  of  a  caterpillar  into  a  chrysalis,  from 
which  it  rapidly  develops  into  a  moth.  Unless 
the  chrysalis  is  killed  before  the  moth  has  devel- 
oped, the  cocoon  will  be  pierced  and  the  thread 
broken,  so  live  steam  is  applied,  which  kills  the 
chrysalis,  and  the  silk  can  then  be  reeled  off  at 
any  time. 

The  life  cycle  lasts  about  55  days  on  the  aver- 
age: (a)  30  to  40  days  as  larva;  (b)  15  to  20 
days  as  chrysalis ;  (c)  6  to  12  days  as  moth.  A 
moth  lays  about  700  eggs  in  three  days,  30,000 
eggs  equalling  1  oz. 

Silk  Reeling'.— Silk  reeling  is  accomplished 
by  soaking  the  cocoons  in  warm  water  to  soften 
the  gum  and  then  carefully  unwinding  the  fibers, 


70  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

twisting  several  together,  according  to  the  size 
of  thread  desired,  and  winding  it  into  skeins. 
These  skeins  are  put  into  canvas  bags  and 
soaked  over  night  in  warm  soapsuds  to  further 
soften  the  gum  which  has  stuck  the  fibers  to- 
gether. Then  they  are  hung  across  poles  in  a 
steam  heated  room  and  dried.  Following  this 
the  silk  is  wound  upon  bobbins  and  spun  into 
thread. 

The  waste  silk  from  the  reeling  is  mixed  with 
that  from  the  outer  part  of  the  cocoons,  known 
as  "floss,"  and  is  subsequently  spun  into  what 
is  called  spun  silk.  It  is  treated  as  a  bundle 
of  fine  fibers,  like  wool  or  cotton,  and  is  spun 
by  textile  machinery  that  is  especially  adapted 
to  it. 

Silk  Dyeing.— Silk  is  dyed  either  in  the  yarn 
or  in  the  piece.  If  dyed  in  the  yarn,  the  gum  is 
removed  by  soaking  in  boiling  soap  and  water, 
then  the  yarn  is  washed  in  cold  water.  At  this 
point  weighting  is  often  put  in — tin,  iron,  or 
other  mineral  salts  being  absorbed  by  the  fiber. 
Sometimes  there  is  more  weighting  than  silk, 
for  silk  has  the  peculiar  property  of  being  able 
to  absorb  certain  minerals.  Because  of  this  they 
are  much  used  to  deceive  the  buyer  into  paying  a 


REEL  IN  OPERATION 


M 


REELED  AND  WASTE  SILK 
71 


72  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

higher  price  for  silk  than  it  is  worth,  as  weight- 
ing makes  silk  both  weak  and  tender,  and  infe- 
rior grades  are  apt  to  be  used.  Silk  will  take  up 
50  to  200%  of  weighting  without  arousing 
much  suspicion.  The  silk  is  dyed,  the  luster  re- 
stored, and  it  is  then  ready  for  weaving,  after 
which  the  material  is  singed  to  remove  loose 
fibers,  straightened,  and  sized  with  starch  or 
glue -to  stiffen  it. 

Since  1624  several  attempts  have  been  made 
to  rear  silkworms  in  America.  All  have  met 
with  failure  because  of  climatic  or  labor  condi- 
tions. In  some  cases  the  mulberry  trees  were 
injured  by  early  frosts  and  in  all  cases  the  low 
cost  of  labor  in  Europe  offered  a  competition 
that  it  has  been  impossible  to  meet.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  the  original  Cheney  Bros., 
well-known  silk  manufacturers,  made  an  at- 
tempt to  raise  silkworms  in  South  Manchester, 
Conn.  Some  of  the  mulberry  trees,  planted  at 
that  time,  are  still  standing.  Importing  the  raw 
material  and  manufacturing  it  in  the  United 
States  has  been  found  to  be  the  best  business 
proposition.  There  are  about  700  establish- 
ments for  the  manufacture  of  silk  in  the  United 
States.  Paterson,  N.  J.,  is  the  silk  city  of  Amer- 


SILK 


73 


ica,  having  more  than  300  mills  and  employing 
40,000  men  and  women.  The  manufactured  silk 
that  is  imported  now  is  confined  to  the  costliest 
fabrics  in  broad  silks,  to  fashionable  novelties, 
and  to  church  vestments  and  specialties  not 
suitable  for  mechanical  weaving. 

The  following  is  a  table  from  "Shelter  & 
by  Kinne  &  Cooley: 


Clothing'  ' 


COMMON  SILK  MATERIALS 


Name 

Usual 
Width 

Usual 
Price 

Description 

Bengaline  

18  to  22  in. 

$.75 

Used  for  dress  goods  and 

trimmings.       Effect    of 

rounded  silk   cord  like 

poplin.    Made  in  all  silk 

or   with   wool   cord   of 

woof  covered  with  silk 

warp. 

Brocaded  Satin.  . 

24  in. 

$1  up 

Beautiful  fabrics  of  Jac- 

quard  design.     Slightly 

raised     from      surface. 

Dress  goods,  trimmings, 

and  furniture  coverings. 

Chiffon  

46  in. 

$.75  to 

Used  for  dress  jroods  veils 

$2 

millinery,      and     trim- 

mings.    A  thin,  gauzy, 

light     fabric     of     plain 

colors  generally.      Fin- 

ished soft  or  with  dress- 

ing. 

China  Silk  

24  in. 

$1 

Name  used  for  plain  hand- 

woven    silks    of    plain 

74 


THE  STUDY  OF  FABEICS 


Name 

Usual 
Width 

Usual 
Price 

Description 

weave  in  China.     Dis- 

tinguished by  irregular 

threads     and    softness. 

Used  for  waists,  dresses, 

underwear.      Very    du- 

rable. 

Crepe  de  Chine.  . 

22  in. 

$.75  up 

Used     for     dress     goods. 

Plain  color  or  printed. 

Smoother  surface  than 

most  crepes.     Soft  and 

lustrous.     Plain  weave. 

Effect  produced  by  right 

and  left  twisting  of  warp 

threads. 

Foulard  

24  in. 

$.75  up 

Dress  goods  of  printed  or 

woven  design.    Name  in 

French,  "handkerchief," 

for      which      originally 

used. 

Habutai  

27  in. 

$.60  to 

Woven  in  gum.   Boiled  and 

$2 

finished  after  weaving. 

Moire"  

22  in. 

$2 

A  watered  effect  produced 

by     pressing     between 

stamped  rollers  on  gros- 

grain    silk.      Used    for 

dresses  and  trimmings. 

Louisine  

20  in. 

$.85  to 

A  plain,  durable  silk,  soft, 

$1.50 

glossy  texture,   slightly 

twilled  in  effect.     Used 

for    dress    goods    and 

trimmings. 

M  aline 

27  in. 

$.25  to 

A  soft,  thin,  gauzy  fabric. 

$.50 

Similar  to  net. 

Mousseline  de  Soie 

45  in. 

$.50  up 

A  thin,  gauzy  fabric  with 

more    starch    in    finish 

than  soft  chiffon.    Used 

SILK 


75 


Name 

Usual 
Width 

Usual 
Price 

Description 

Peau  de  Soie  .... 
Pongee 

21  in. 

27  in. 

$.75  to 
$1.50 

$1  up 

for  trimmings  and  dress 
goods. 
A  plain,  colored,  reversible 
silk  in  good  quality.     A 
heavy,  soft-finished  silk. 
Used    for    dress    goods 
and  trimmings. 
A  soft,  unbleached,  wash- 

Plush   

24  in. 

$3 

able  silk,  ecru  in  color. 
Woven  from  silk  of  wild 
silkworm.  Originated  in 
China.      Hand   woven. 
Used   for   dress   goods, 
coats,  etc. 
A  long,  shaggy  fabric  of 

Rajah  

36  to  54  in. 

$.60  to 

velvet  class.  Woven  and 
pile  cut.   Used  for  dress 
trimming,  furniture  cov- 
ering, draperies,  etc. 
A  rough  silk,  plain  weave 

Satin  . 

21  to  54  in. 

$2 
$1  to 

of     irregular     threads. 
Not  very  durable.  Used 
for   dresses   and   coats. 
A   very   old   weave   with 

Skinner's  Satin.  . 
Taffeta  

36  in. 
21  in.  up 

$10 

$1.25 
$.60  to 

much  of  woof  on  surface 
to   give   smooth  finish. 
Made  in  all  grades  and 
combined  with  linen  and 
cotton.    Used  for  many 
purposes,   box  making, 
fans.      Better   qualities 
for  fine  gowns. 
Used  for  lining. 
A    thin,     glossy    silk    of 

$2 

plain  texture.    Same  on 
both  sides.     Plain  col- 

76 


THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 


Name 

Usual 
Width 

Usual 
Price 

Description 

Tulle  .... 

3  yd  wide 

$75  to 

ors.      Made   also   with 
printed  and  woven  fig- 
ures.    Used  for  gowns, 
petticoats,  linings.  Does 
not    wear    well    unless 
good  quality  and  small 
per  cent  of  weighting. 
A  kind  of  silk  net  of  open 

Velvet    .   . 

18  to  42  in 

$2.25 
$4  to  $20 

mesh.     Used  for  neck- 
wear, veiling,  etc. 
Used  for  handsome  gowns 

and  trimmings.  Woven 
and  cut  to  form  pile. 
Made  also  of  cotton  or 
linen  in  combination. 

PHYSICAL   AND    CHEMICAL    CHARACTERISTICS   OF 
SILK  FIBER 

Physical.— Under  the  microscope  the  silk  fi- 
ber appears  as  a  smooth,  structureless  filament, 
regular  in  diameter  and  transparent.  One  strik- 
ing characteristic  of  silk  is  its  high  luster, 
which,  however,  only  appears  after  the  silk  has 
been  scoured  to  remove  the  silk  gum.  Dyeing 
and  mordanting  also  affect  the  luster  more  or 
less,  especially  when  silk  is  heavily  weighted, 


SILK  77 

and,  therefore,  after  dyeing,  silk  usually  goes 
through  a  lustering  operation  in  which  the 
hanks  are  stretched  strongly  by  twisting  and  at 
the  same  time  steaming  under  pressure. .  By 
this  process  much  of  the  luster  is  restored. 

Eaw  silk  will  absorb  as  much  as  30%  of  its 
weight  in  moisture  and  still  appear  dry.  This 
property  is  called  hygroscopicity,  and  because 
of  it  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  silk  has  to 
be  determined  at  the  time  of  sale  and  allowances 
have  to  be  made  for  it.  The  amount  legally 
permitted  is  11%. 

Another  property  of  silk  is  that  of  being  a 
poor  conductor  of  electricity.  It  is,  therefore, 
readily  electrified  by  friction.  Silk  is  the 
strongest  fiber  known,  said  to  almost  equal  the 
tensile  strength  of  iron  wire  of  equal  diameter. 
It  is  also  extremely  elastic,  raw  silk  stretching 
from  15%  to  20%  its  original  length  in  the  dry 
state  before  breaking.  Weighting  of  silk  causes 
a  decrease  in  both  elasticity  and  strength. 

A  property  which  is  peculiar  in  silk  is  its 
"scroop" — the  crackling  sound  it  makes  when 
rubbed  or  squeezed.  This  is  the  cause  of  the 
rustle  which  characterizes  most  silk  materials, 


78  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

although  weave  influences  the  degree  to  a  large 
extent. 

Chemical. — As  has  been  mentioned  before, 
the  silkworm  has  two  sets  of  glands,  one  of 
which  secretes  the  fibroin  or  silk  fiber,  and  the 
other  set  secretes  the  sericin  or  silk  glue  which 
coats  the  fibers  and  cements  them  together.  Fi- 
broin composes  about  %  to  %  of  the  silk  secre- 
tion, the  rest  being  composed  of  the  sericin.  As 
soon  as  the  two  fibroin  fluids  come  into  contact 
with  the  air  they  solidify,  and  coming  into  con- 
tact with  each  other  at  the  moment  of  discharge, 
they  are  coated  with  the  silk  glue  and  firmly 
cemented  together.  The  sericin  is  yellow  in 
color  and  is  soluble  in  hot  water,  hot  soap,  and 
alkaline  solution.  The  silk  is  worked  in  a  soap 
solution  at  a  temperature  of  203°  F.,  losing 
from  20%  to  30%  in  weight  and  becoming  soft 
and  glossy.  In  regard  to  many  of  its  chemical 
reactions  silk  is  similar  to  wool.  It  can  stand  a 
high  temperature,  230°  F.,  without  decomposi- 
tion. It  readily  absorbs  dilute  acids,  and  has 
a  strong  affinity  for  tannic  acid,  which  fact  is 
used  in  dyeing  and  mordanting.  It  readily  ab- 
sorbs sugar,  which  is  sometimes  utilized  in 
weighting  light  colored  silks.  Silk  also  has  such 


SILK  79 

an  affinity  for  ordinary  metallic  salts  that  it  is 
often  heavily  weighted  with  them.  Common 
salt,  however,  destroys  the  silk  fiber.  That  rot- 
ting of  silks  due  to  the  salt  present  in  perspira- 
tion is  frequently  noted. 

Concentrated  acids  and  strong,  hot  alkalies 
destroy  silk,  and  dilute  alkalies  decrease  the  lus- 
ters, although  they  have  less  effect  on  the 
strength  of  the  fiber  than  upon  wool. 

Silk  has  a  great  affinity  for  dyestuffs,  absorb- 
ing coloring  matter  readily.  Authorities  dis- 
agree as  to  whether  this  is  a  physical  or  chemi- 
cal process,  or  a  combination  of  the  two. 

Weighting  of  Silk. — The  practice  of  weight- 
ing silk  is  probably  centuries  old,  for  it  has  long 
been  known  that  silk  possesses  a  great  affinity 
for  tannin,  but  it  is  only  within  the  last  25 
years  that  weighting  has  been  in  general  use. 

The  boiling  off  of  the  gum  reduces  the  weight 
of  the  raw  silk  from  5  to  30  per  cent.  Since  the 
price  of  raw  silk  is  about  $5  per  pound  it  is  not 
to  be  wondered  at  that  ways  have  been  devised 
to  make  up  this  loss.  Harmless  additions  of 
plain  sugar  and  sugar  of  lead  were  used  in  the 
beginning  but  the  demand  for  cheap  silks  has 
brought  about  an  exaggerated  and  injurious 


80  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

weighting.  The  throwster  may  leave  an  excess 
of  soap  and  oils  in  the  silk  but  most  of  the  loss 
is  made  up  and  weight  added  in  the  dyeing  proc- 
ess. Silk  is  very  absorptive,  it  being  possible 
to  weight  or  load  it  up  to  five  times  its  boiled 
off  weight.  While  this  is  a  great  advantage  to 
the  manufacturer,  it  is  unfortunate  for  the  con- 
sumer, since  the  result  is  the  mechanical  weak- 
ening of  the  filaments.  This  may  be  explained 
in  various  ways:  first,  the  stretching  of  the 
walls  when  taking  in  the  metallic  weighting 
weakens  the  fibers ;  second,  the  salts  crystallize 
when  exposed  to  the  sunlight,  thus  cutting  the 
delicate  filaments ;  third,  oxidation  occurs  in  the 
course  of  time,  with  a  consequent  weakening  of 
the  fibers ;  fourth,  perspiration  causes  deterior- 
ation because  chlorine  is  freed,  which  causes 
rotting. 

The  silk  to  be  weighted  is  immersed  in  a  se- 
ries of  solutions,  with  thorough  washings  be- 
tween each  treatment.  The  number  of  immer- 
sions is  determined  by  the  amount  of  weighting 
desired.  To  weight  a  silk  heavily  requires 
many  dippings.  Compounds  of  tin,  lead,  and 
iron  in  solution  are  most  commonly  used. 
White  and  light  colored  silks  are  weighted  as 


SILK  81 

well  as  black  and  dark  colored.  This  is  con- 
trary to  the  opinion  commonly  held,  but  can  be 
easily  demonstrated.  "Weighting  reduces  the 
strength  of  the  fiber  greatly.  Strehlenart 
showed  a  black  silk  weighted  to  the  extent  of 
140  per  cent  was  only  one-sixth  as  strong  as 
pure  crude  silk.  Even  a  weak  solution  of  com- 
mon salt  has  a  pronounced  deteriorating  effect 
upon  silk  that  has  been  weighted  with  metallic 
compounds.  The  salt  in  the  perspiration  un- 
doubtedly accounts  partially  for  its  disintegrat- 
ing effect  upon  silk.  The  action  of  sea  water 
also  illustrates  the  effect  of  a  salt  solution  on 
weighted  silk. 

The  practice  of  weighting  silks  with  metallic 
salts  is  responsible  for  the  small  holes  which  fre- 
quently appear  in  present  day  silks.  It  also  ac- 
counts for  the  splitting  which  is  so  common,  as 
well  as  the  fact  that  it  is  difficult  to  find  a  silk 
today  which  has  satisfactory  wearing  qualities. 
The  silkworm  has  not  lost  the  art  of  spinning 
good  silk,  but  the  manufacturer  has  taken  ad- 
vantage of  this  peculiar  quality  of  silk.  While 
this  has  made  it  possible  to  sell  silk  fabrics  at 
a  much  lower  price  than  formerly,  it  has  also 
produced  a  condition  where  it  is  almost  impossi- 


82  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

ble  to  find  a  silk  of  the  firm  taffeta  type,  at  any 
price,  which  is  free  from  weighting. 

Again,  what  we  need  is  textile  laws  requiring 
proper  labelling  of  material  offered  for  sale. 
To  quote  from  an  article  in  Harper's  Weekly: 
"  There  is  at  present  an  agitation  in  the  silk 
trade  to  bring  about  the  marking  of  all  silk  to 
show  its  degree  of  purity,  so  that  the  innocent 
consumer  may  be  able  to  buy  silk  with  some  de- 
gree of  intelligence.  It  is  pointed  out  that,  while 
there  are  conditions  when  the  adulteration  is 
not  harmful  (when  the  wear  is  not  essential)  a 
law  of  this  kind  would  greatly  increase  the 
standard  of  quality/' 

We  will  not  attempt  to  decide  whether  the 
public  or  the  manufacturer  is  most  to  blame  for 
the  present  condition.  However  that  may  be, 
it  should  be  possible  to  purchase  well-wearing 
silks,  if  one  is  willing  to  pay  the  price. 

The  simplest  test  for  the  detection  of  weight- 
ing in  silk  is  that  of  burning  the  fiber.  Pure 
silk,  when  held  in  a  flame,  burns  quickly,  melts, 
and  runs  together,  leaving  a  small  quantity  of 
carbon.  If  burned  long  enough  at  a  sufficiently 
high  temperature  this  residue  entirely  disap- 
pears. 


SILK  83 

Weighted  silk,  when  burned,  simply  blackens 
and  remains  in  practically  the  original  form.  A 
longer  burning  would  again  decompose  the 


Original 


Residue 


Original 


Residue 


WEIGHTED  SILK  ABOVE,  PURE  SILK  BELOW,  BEFORE  AND 
AFTER  BURNING 

black  carbon  but  still  leave  the  mineral  matter, 
usually  in  the  form  of  a  grayish  or  reddish  ash; 
depending  on  the  mineral  used, 


84 


THE  STUDY  OF  FABEICS 


Sometimes  the  threads  one  way  will  be 
weighted  while  the  others  are  pure,  and  less 
often  a  piece  will  be  found  which  has  a  few 


Original 


Residue 


Original  Residue 

WEIGHTED  SILKS  BEFORE  AND  AFTER  BURNING 

weighted  threads  woven  in  a  design,  while  the 
bulk  of  the  material  is  pure  silk. 

The  simple  burning  with  a  match  is  a  most 
practical  household  test.     As  a  general  rule, 


SILK 


85 


the  less  weighting  the  greater  service  may  be 
expected  from  the  material.  Where  the  threads 
one  way  are  weighted,  this  rule  does  not  hold 


Original     Residue 

Messaline,  21  inches 
$1.50  per  yard 

WEIGHTED  SILKS  BEFORE  AND  AFTER  BURNING 

good,  because  if  the  threads  in  one  direction 
give  way,  the  material  loses  its  usefulness. 

Burn  a  number  of  pieces  of  silk  to  discover 
some  which  are  pure  silk,  some  weighted  both 
ways,  some  weighted  only  one  way,  and  if  pos- 
sible some  which  show  weighted  threads  used  in 


86  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

a  design  when  the  large  part  is  pure  silk  or 
vice  versa. 

Wash  silks  are  often  part  cotton.  Perhaps 
the  most  common  mixture  is  a  cotton  warp  and 
silk  weft.  By  exposing  the  warp  and  weft 
threads  separately  the  difference  can  often  be 
detected  readily.  The  following  test  may  be 
used  if  there  is  any  question. 


Before  After 

Charmeuse  Messaline 

i 

PURE  SILKS  BEFORE  'AND  AFTER  BURNING 

Treat  a  sample  with  concentrated  hydro- 
chloric acid  (HC1).  Silk  will  dissolve  much 
more  quickly  than  any  other  fiber. 

Other  silks  have  been  found  to  be  adulter- 
ated with  linen,  also.  This  is  not  common,  and 
may  be  detected  by  using  the  same  test  and  the 
microscope. 

Artificial  Silks. — The  idea  of  producing  fine 
threads  having  the  luster  of  natural  silk  dates 


SILK  87 

back  as  far  as  1734  when  the  French  naturalist 
Reaumur  suggested  that  since  silk  was  what  he 
described  as  a  naturally  hardened  gum,  it 
should  be  possible  to  produce  similar  filaments 
by  forcing  a  varnish,  such  as  that  used  by  the 
Chinese,  through  minute  openings,  and  drying 
the  threads  thus  obtained. 

In  1855  Andemars  of  Stockholm  took  out  a 
patent  in  which  nitrated  cellulose,  prepared 
from  the  inner  bark  of  the  mulberry  tree,  was 
dissolved  in  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  ether  and 
the  solution  evaporated  with  a  solution  of  India 
rubber.  A  steel  point  was  dipped  into  the  vis- 
cid liquid,  and  the  threads  adhering  to  it  were 
drawn  out  into  fine  filaments.  This  did  not 
achieve  commercial  success. 

Real  beginning  was  due  to  Chardonnet  whose 
first  patent  was  obtained  in  1885.  Nitrocellu- 
lose, prepared  from  cotton  or  wood  pulp,  is  dis- 
solved under  pressure  in  a  mixture  of  ether  and 
alcohol,  and  the  viscous  solution  forced  through 
small  openings  1/100  mm.  in  diameter.  The 
solvent  evaporates  and  leaves  the  nitrated  cellu- 
lose. Three,  four,  or  more  fibers  are  spun  to- 
gether, and  the  threads  denitrated  by  immer- 
sion in  a  5%  to  20%  solution  of  ammonium 


88  THE  STUDY  OF  FABEICS 

hydrosulfide,   and  finally  washed,   dried,   and 
dyed  to  any  color  desired. 

Artificial  silks  are  made   on  a  commercial 
scale  by  the  Chardonnet  process  in  France,  Ger- 


CHARDONNET  SILK  FIBERS 

many,  and  Belgium,  and  on  a  smaller  scale  in 
England  and  the  United  States.  Their  use  is 
limited  almost  entirely  to  ribbons,  braids,  tap- 
estry, and  other  fabrics  in  which  strength  is  not 
the  primary  consideration.  Compared  with 


SILK  89 

true  silk,  the  artificial  silks  feel  harsher  to  the 
touch,  are  even  more  brilliant  and  lack  the 
strength  and  elasticity  of  the  natural  product. 
The  chief  drawback  to  the  commercial  suc- 
cess of  collodion  silk  is  its  behavior  with  water. 
When  wetted,  the  fiber  loses  its  original  strength 
to  such  a  degree  that  it  must  be  handled  with 
great  care.  Soap  solutions  and  dilute  acids 
have  no  injurious  effects,  but  alkaline  solutions 
rapidly  disintegrate  the  fiber  and  finally  dis- 
solve it  completely. 


CHAPTEE  V 
LINEN 

It  is  difficult  to  tell  just  when  or  where  linen 
was  first  used,  but  most  historians  agree  that 
Egypt  probably  first  discovered  the  value  of 
the  flax  plant  as  a  source  of  linen.  The  earliest 
picture  writings  show  that  the  linen  industry 
was  well  developed.  Genesis  41 :  42  tells  us  that 
Pharaoh  arrayed  Joseph  in  vestures  of  fine 
linen,  and  there  are  other  references  to  flax  in 
Egypt.  This  was  about  1715  B.  C.  The  refer- 
ence to  "fine  linen "  would  indicate  that  the  in- 
dustry had  reached  a  high  state  of  development. 
Mummy  cloths  4,000  years  old  show  linen  of 
quite  a  fine  quality. 

From  Egypt  linen  culture  spread  to  Babylon, 
to  Greece,  and  to  Rome.  Great  encouragement 
was  given  to  it  in  Italy,  and  guilds  were  later 
formed  to  regulate  and  protect  the  linen  trade. 
All  over  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
until  the  invention  of  power  spinning,  linen  was 

90 


FLAX  IN  DIFFERENT  STAGES  OF  ITS  PREPARATION  FOR 
WEAVING 


92  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

used  almost  entirely  where  today  cotton  is  used. 
Since  the  industrial  revolution,  cotton  has  re- 
placed linen  for  many  purposes.  It  can  never 
replace  linen  for  table  service  and  many  other 
purposes,  because  it  lacks  luster,  smoothness, 
and  the  excellent  laundering  qualities. 

Ireland,  Belgium,  Holland,  Germany,  Rus- 
sia, France,  parts  of  the  United  States,  and 
Canada  are  raising  large  quantities  of  flax  at 
the  present  time.  Russia  produces  more  than 
half  of  the  world's  supply,  but  Ireland  and  Bel- 
gium rank  first  in  quality. 

Flax  culture  must  be  divided  into  two 
branches :  culture  for  fiber,  and  culture  for  seed. 
In  the  United  States  flax  is  raised  almost  en- 
tirely for  the  seed.  The  relatively  small  amount 
of  flax  manufactured  is  imported  and  used 
largely  for  coarse  fabrics,  twine,  and  thread. 
/  The  flax  plant  requires  a  temperate  climate 
and  a  rich  soil  if  it  is  to  be  used  for  fiber,  as 
the  growth  must  be  rapid.  An  even,  moist  tem- 
perature and  low  altitude  produce  the  best 
grades  of  fiber. 

The  seed  is  sown  early  in  May,  and  it  is 
grown  and  ready  to  pull  by  the  last  of  June. 
The  plant  grows  from  a  foot  and  a  half  to  three 


LINEN  93 

feet  in  height  and  bears  a  delicate  blue  flower. 
Before  the  seed  is  entirely  ripe,  and  when  the 
stalk  of  the  plant  has  turned  yellow  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  way  down,  the  flax  is  harvested. 
It  is  pulled  instead  of  being  cut,  to  save  all  of 
the  available  fiber. 

Linen  is  the  bast  fiber  of  the  flax  plant,  and 
to  separate  it  from  the  rest  of  the  plant  is  a 
long  and  tedious  process.  The  following  is 
the  general  method  of  procedure :  (1)  rippling, 
(2)  retting,  (3)  drying,  (4)  braking,  (5)  scutch- 
ing, (6)  hackling.  Rippling  removes  seeds  and 
leaves  by  crushing  between  rollers.  Betting  is 
a  process  of  fermentation  which  loosens  the  bast 
fibers  from  the  woody  portion  by  decomposing 
the  resins  which  unite  them.  This  is  accom- 
plished in  one  of  three  ways:  (1)  by  exposing 
it  to  the  dew,  (2)  by  allowing  the  fibers  to  re- 
main in  stagnant  water  for  several  days,  or  (3) 
by  leaving  them  in  slow  running  water.  This 
last  method  probably  gives  the  best  results.  The 
most  successful  attempt  to  shorten  the  process 
is  by  the  use  of  tanks  of  heated  water.  In  this 
way  the  retting  may  be  accomplished  in  from 
fifty  to  sixty  hours.  After  retting,  the  bundles 
are  set  up  in  the  fields  and  allowed  to  dry. 


94  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

Braking  crushes  the  woody  part  in  a  flax  brake 
as  a  preparatory  step  to  separating  it  from  the 
fiber.  Scutching  separates  the  straw  and  fiber 
by  the  action  of  several  wooden  knives,  mounted 
in  a  wheel,  which  strike,  as  the  wheel  revolves, 
against  a  wooden  block  across  which  the  flax  is 
laid.  Hackling  combs  out  the  fiber,  freeing  it 
from  the  woody  portion,  and  dividing  the  fiber 
into  ' '  line ' '  and  ' i  tow ' ' — '  *  line ' '  being  the  long, 
smooth  fibers,  and  "tow"  being  the  short, 
snarled  ends  used  only  in  cheap  linens.  Hand 
hackling  usually  takes  the  place  of  the  machine 
for  the  better  grades  of  flax.  Drawing  and 
spinning  are  similar  to  the  process  as  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  cotton.  Flax  spinning  is 
much  more  satisfactory  if  done  in  a  moist  at- 
mosphere. The  hand  spinner  of  former  days 
kept  a  bowl  of  water  at  hand,  in  which  she 
moistened  her  fingers  as  she  spun. 

Weaving  linen  is  rather  more  difficult  than 
Weaving  cotton.  The  fiber  is  not  so  elastic,  and 
breaks  when  there  is  a  sudden  strain  instead  of 
stretching  as  cotton  does.  Coarser  linens,  such 
as  Eussian  crashes,  are  still  woven  on  hand 
looms  by  peasants  in  different  countries.  Fine 
damask;  woven  for  so  long  on  hand  looms?  is 


LINEN  95 

now  made  almost  entirely  on  power  machines. 

Bleaching  may  be  done  at  one  or  two  different 
times:  (1)  immediately  after  retting,  or  (2) 
after  the  cloth  is  woven.  If  it  be  done  most 
carefully  it  requires  a  combination  of  many 
washings,  treatments  with  bleaching  powder, 
rinsings,  grass-bleaching  processes  requiring 
not  only  weeks  of  time,  but  proper  fields  upon 
which  the  cloth  may  be  spread  and  favorable 
weather  to  do  the  grassing.  The  modern  proc- 
ess in  the  United  States  is  accomplished  al- 
most entirely  by  chemicals.  It  is  treated  with 
sodium  carbonate,  bleaching  powder,  and  di- 
lute sulphuric  acid  successively,  being  thor- 
oughly washed  between  these  operations.  Ire- 
land, famous  for  its  beautiful  linens,  uses  the 
first  method. 

Linen  loses  from  25  to  30  per  cent  in  bleach- 
ing, and  becomes  weaker  as  it  becomes  whiter. 
The  loss  of  tensile  strength  is  much  more 
marked  when  chemicals  are  largely  used  than 
when  the  natural  agents — sun  and  air — do  the 
work.  This  partially  explains  the  great  differ- 
ence in  wearing  quality  between  the  old  home- 
spun and  the  modern  machine-made  linens. 
After  bleaching,  the  material  is  washed,  dried, 


96  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

starched,  and  ironed  to  give  it  a  glossy  appear- 
ance. The  heavy  pressing  after  the  addition  of 
sizing  materials  not  only  gives  a  good  finish 
but  also  makes  it  possible  to  handle  the  linen 
in  the  store  without  destroying  its  finished  ap- 
pearance. Sizing,  when  added  in  excess,  makes 
a  poor  grade  of  cloth  look  well,  but  after  wash- 
ing, the  material  often  disappoints  the  buyer. 

Physical  and  Chemical  Characteristics  of 
Linen  Fiber.— Good  flax  fiber,  when  separated 
from  the  stalk,  should  be  from  12  to  20  inches 
in  length,  and  will  vary  greatly  in  fineness.  It 
is  stronger  than  cotton,  but  lacks  elasticity.  Un- 
der the  microscope  the  flax  fiber  is  seen  to  be  a 
long  cylindrical  tube  with  transverse  markings 
or  nodes  at  more  or  less  regular  intervals.  The 
fiber  is  composed  of  cells  consisting  almost  en- 
tirely of  pure  cellulose.  The  color  varies  from 
yellowish-white  to  brown,  and  from  pearl  to 
steel  gray,  the  best  quality  being  pale  yellowish- 
white.  The  variation  in  color  is  due  largely  to 
differences  in  the  process  of  retting. 

The  hygroscopicity  of  linen  is  low,  varying 
from  5  to  8  per  cent,  but  the  absorptive  power 
is  unusually  high.  It  is  this  quality  which  makes 


LINEN  97 

linen  an  especially  valuable  material  for  tow- 
els. 

Luster  is  one  of  the  most  prized  assets  of 
linen,  and  is  retained  as  long  as  the  fiber  lasts. 
The  process  of  retting  may  affect  the  strength 


FLAX  FIBERS 

and  luster  to  some  extent  if  allowed  to  continue 
after  the  resins  are  dissolved. 

Compared  with  the  other  textile  fibers  linen 
is  the  best  conductor  of  heat  and  electricity.   It 


98  THE  STUDY  OF  FABEICS 

is  this  property  which  makes  linen  feel  cool  to 
the  touch. 

Toward  mordants  and  dyestuffs  linen  does 
not  react  so  readily  as  cotton;  therefore,  it  is 
more  difficult  to  set  dye  in  linen  cloth. 

The  action  of  acids  and  alkalies  upon  linen  is 
much  the  same  as  upon  cotton,  strong  mineral 
acids  destroying  the  fiber,  cold,  dilute  mineral 
acids  affecting  the  cloth  but  little  if  thoroughly 
washed  out,  and  organic  acids  having  no  effect 
unless  allowed  to  dry  on  and  are  afterwards 
moistened  and  ironed.  Alkalies,  if  caustic,  de- 
stroy linen  cloth  the  same  as  cotton,  but  dilute 
washing  soda  solutions,  borax,  and  soap  have 
no  appreciable  effect  on  linen.  The  same  pre- 
cautions have  to  be  taken  in  using  bleaching 
powders  as  with  cotton  cloth. 

COMMON  LINEN  FABKICS 

Crash. — A  heavy,   loosely  woven  material  made   of 

coarse  yarn.    It  is  much  used  for  toweling  and 

summer  suitings. 
Damask. — A  lustrous,  satiny  material  used  for  table 

linens. 
Art  Linen. — A  material  having  a  round,  hard  twisted 

thread.    It  is  much  used  for  embroidering  and 

drawnwork. 


LINEN  99 

Handkerchief  Linen. — A  sheer,  fine  linen  used  for 
handkerchiefs,  infant's  dresses,  waists,  and 
women's  clothes. 

Huckaback. — A  dice-like  pattern,  very  heavy  and  serv- 
iceable, used  for  toweling. 

Butcher's  Linen. — Coarse,  white  material  used  for  lin- 
ings mainly. 

Glass  Toweling. — A  smooth  finished  checked  toweling 
made  in  Ireland. 

Household  Linens. — Because  of  its  smooth- 
ness of  texture,  its  brilliancy,  and  its  excellent 
wearing  and  laundering  possibilities,  linen  is 
the  one  fiber  best  suited  for  the  table  and  toilet. 
The  very  fact  that  it  does  not  take  dyes  easily 
makes  it  easier  to  remove  stains  from  linen  than 
from  cotton,  and  the  satin  smoothness  of  the 
cloth  keeps  it  clean  longer  than  other  material. 

Table  Linen. — Ireland,  Scotland,  and  Ger- 
many supply  most  of  the  table  linens.  Irish 
linens  are  the  best  and  most  expensive,  running 
from  $.75  or  $1  a  yard  to  $3.  The  John  Brown 
linen  with  the  shamrock  trade-mark,  is  one  of 
the  well-known  brands  of  dependable  quality. 
The  Scotch  linens  have  excellent  patterns  and 
run  from  $.50  to  $2  and  over  for  a  yard.  Ger- 
man damask,  which  is  very  durable  owing  to  its 
having  a  closer,  harder  twisted  thread  than  the 


100         THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

others,  runs  from  $.50  to  $1.50  a  yard.  French 
damask  is  noted  for  its  exquisite  designs  and 
effective  appearance;  the  thread  is  fine  and 
round.  There  is  a  wide  range  in  quality,  from 
the  most  expensive  to  the  cheaper  grades. 

When  buying  linens,  rub  them  between  the 
fingers  to  remove  the  starch  and  choose  those 
which  are  firm  and  heavy  with  not  too  fine  a 
thread.  A  consideration  of  the  pattern  is  not 
only  important  from  the  standpoint  of  design 
but  of  wearing  quality  as  well.  A  large  figure 
with  long  overshot  threads  will  not  wear  so  well 
as  the  one  with  a  smaller  design  and  shorter 
threads  on  the  surface.  The  reason  for  this 
is  obvious,  but  is  often  forgotten  when  purchas- 
ing table  linen. 

Bed  Linen. — Although  most  attractive  in  ap- 
pearance and  most  durable,  linen  is  not  the  most 
satisfactory  material  to  use  for  sheets  and  pil- 
lowcases, as  it  is  so  easily  wrinkled  and,  fur- 
thermore, feels  damp  and  chill  when  brought  in 
contact  with  the  body.  The  high  price  of  linen 
is  also  a  point  against  its  common  use  in  this 
way.  Linen  sheeting  ranges  in  price  from 
'  $1.50  to  $2.50  a  yard.  Hemstitched  linen  sheets 
may  be  purchased  for  about  $7.50  a  pair.  The 


LINEN;  :J3, 

tubing  for  pillowcases  range^  jn  price  from  $1 
to  $1.25  a  yard,  and  the  ready-made s  pillovrc'sises 
from  $1.25  to  $2  a  pair. 

Toweling. — The  quality  of  easily  absorbing 
moisture,  which  is  a  characteristic  of  linen, 
makes  it  suitable  for  use  as  towels.  The 
checked  glass  toweling  is  excellent  for  drying 
silver  and  glassware,  while  for  heavier  dishes 
medium  weight  crash  will  give  satisfaction. 

Hand  towels  of  Irish  huckaback  give  the  best 
satisfaction,  being  fine  and  soft  and  yet  firmly 
woven.  The  familiar  cotton  Turkish  towel  is 
now  duplicated  in  linen  which,  after  one  or  two 
launderings  to  remove  the  harshness,  is  a  de- 
light to  use. 

Because  linen  brings  a  much  higher  price 
than  cotton,  and  because  cotton  may  be  finished 
to  resemble  linen,  dishonest  dealers  frequently 
deceive  the  buyer  into  paying  for  a  product 
which  he  does  not  receive.  Sometimes  the  two 
fibers  are  mixed,  and  again  cotton  alone  is  heav- 
ily starched  and  given  a  linen  finish  which  is 
hard  to  distinguish  from  the  true  fiber. 


102,        THE  STUDY  OF  FABEICS 

.BET  WEEN  CoTTON  AND  LlNEN 


(Wash  materials  to  remove  the  dressing  before 
applying  the  following  tests.) 

1.  Linen  feels  smooth,  cool,  and  heavy  compared  with 

cotton.    Linen  also  takes  greater  luster  in  iron- 
ing. 

2.  Untwist  a  cotton  and  a  linen  yarn.     Pull  them  apart 

slowly  and  steadily.    The  ends  of  cotton  fibers 
curl  ;  linen  fibers  remain  stretched  and  pointed. 

3.  Tear  the  material  and  compare  the  edges.    The  torn 

edge  of  linen  is  more  irregular  than  that  of 
cotton. 

4.  Apply  glycerine  or  oil,  cotton  remains  opaque  and 

linen  becomes  translucent. 

5.  Burn  some  of  the  material.    The  burnt  end  of  cot- 

ton is  tufted,  and  that  of  linen  is  rounded. 

6.  Ink   dropped   on   linen   is   quickly   absorbed   and 

makes  a  spot  with  a  regular  outline,  while  on 
cotton  the  absorption  is  slower  and  the  spot 
has  a  much  more  irregular  outline.  Often 
ink  will  be  drawn  out  along  the  separate  cot- 
ton fibers  for  some  distance.  This  is  due  to  a 
difference  in  the  capillary  attraction  of  the  two 
fibers.  This  test  involves  somewhat  the  same 
principle  as  the  old  test  of  moistening  the 
finger  and  putting  it  under  the  material,  but 
*  is  much  more  satisfactory. 
Note.  —  No  one  of  the  above  should  be  taken  as  ab- 

solute.    Try  several  before  making  a  finai  decision. 

Manufacturers  have  become  so  clever  that  they  are 


LINEN  103 

able  to  treat  cotton  so  as  to  make  it  look  and  react 
very  much  like  linen. 

Select  the  following  set  of  samples  and  test 
as  suggested  above : 

3  samples  of  table  linen — varying  in  price, 
3   samples   of  huck  toweling — varying  in 

price, 
2  samples    of    heavy    linen — suitable    for 

tailored  suits, 
1  sample  of  handkerchief  linen, 

1  sample  of  linen  sheeting, 

2  samples  of  glass  toweling, 
2  samples  of  crash. 


CHAPTER  VI 

LAUNDRY  PROBLEMS 

Someone  has  said  that  "The  state  of  civili- 
zation may  be  judged  by  the  soap  bill  of  the 
nation. ' '  That  there  is  some  truth  in  the  state- 
ment we  will  all  admit,  I  am  sure.  During  the 
past  decade  there  has  been  awakened  a  new 
interest  in  the  subject  of  laundering  which  is 
a  hopeful  sign. 

We  may  differ,  in  our  judgment,  as  to 
whether  ironing  is  a  necessity  or  a  luxury,  but 
there  would  be  no  disagreement  as  to  the  ne- 
cessity for  washing. 

It  is  not  simply  to  satisfy  our  sense  of  the 
aesthetic  that  the  periodic  washing  has  become 
an  established  custom  in  the  home.  There  is  a 
sanitary  reason  which  a  few  words  of  explana- 
tion may  help  us  to  understand  more  fully. 

The  skin  acts  as  a  heat  regulating  apparatus 
through  evaporation  of  the  perspiration,  and 
also  serves  in  some  measure  to  eliminate  the 

104 


LAUNDEY  PROBLEMS  105 

body's  waste  products.  These  materials  are  ab- 
sorbed by  the  clothing,  and  after  a  time  the 
pores  of  the  cloth  become  clogged.  This  condi- 
tion prevents  proper  absorption  and  evapora- 
tion of  moisture  from  the  body,  thus  increasing 
warmth  of  body  in  summer  and  making  it  colder 
in  winter. 

The  following  may  be  given  as  the  three  main 
reasons  for  washing: 

1.  To  remove  dirt  and  to  open  the  pores  of 

the  cloth, 

2.  To  dry  the  cloth  and  to  renew  its  ab- 

sorbing power, 

3.  To  destroy  any  bacteria  present. 

In  order  that  we  may  understand  laundry 
methods  it  is  necessary  first  to  learn  something 
of  the  nature  of  the  things  to  be  laundered  and 
how  these  respond  to  the  cleansing  agents  com- 
monly used.  The  purpose  is  not  to  discuss 
methods  so  much  as  the  underlying  principles 
which,  if  understood,  will  aid  in  the  choice  of 
the  best  method. 

We  have  learned  by  experience  that  cotton, 
wool,  and  silk  must  be  treated  differently  if  the 
best  results  are  to  be  obtained.,  It  may  be  of 


106  THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 
interest,  therefore,  to  determine  why  this  is 
true.  In  the  previous  chapters  the  physical 
and  chemical  properties  of  the  various  fibers 
have  been  given,  but  will  be  repeated  briefly  to 
make  the  application  a  little  more  evident. 

The  vegetable  fibers,  cotton  and  linen,  are 
most  frequently  laundered  and,  therefore,  de- 
serve first  place  in  this  discussion.  Their  cel- 
lulose composition  being  so  nearly  the  same, 
we  find  the  behavior  toward  acids  and  alkalies, 
the  chemicals  we  are  most  concerned  with  in 
the  laundry  problems,  so  nearly  identical  that 
they  may  be  considered  together.  Effect  of 
acids  on  the  vegetable  fibers: 

1.  Strong  mineral  acids,  as  sulphuric,  ni- 
tric, and  hydrochloric,  entirely  destroy 
the  fiber  in  a  very  short  time. 

2.  Cold  dilute  mineral  acids  have  little  ef- 
fect if  not  allowed  to  dry  on.     Organic 
acids,  as  acetic  in  vinegar,  oxalic  in  to- 
matoes, citric  in  lemons,  etc.,  have  no  ac- 
tion unless  allowed  to  dry  on.    If  dried, 
moistened,  and  ironed,  they  will  destroy 
the  fibers. 


LAUNDRY  PROBLEMS  107 

Effect  of  Alkalies  on  the  Vegetable  Fibers: 

1.  A  strong  solution  for  a  short  time  in- 
creases the  strength,  as  is  illustrated  in 
the  process  of  mercerization.  If  submitted 
to  the  treatment  for  a  longer  time  the  fi- 
ber is  weakened. 

2.  Dilute  alkalies  have  little,  if  any,  effect 
according  to  present  data.     As  many  of 
the  washing  compounds,  if  properly  used, 
come  under  the  above  class,  the  fact  is  of 
great  interest  to  the  laundress.    The  more 
delicate   the   fiber   the   greater  the   care 
which  is  necessary  in  their  use. 

Effect  of  Acids  on  the  Animal  Fibers: 

1.  Wool:      Strong    mineral    acids    destroy 
wool,  but  the  destruction  is  much  slower 
than  with  cotton.    If  acid  is  dilute,  there 
is  practically  no  effect. 

2.  Silk:    Strong  acids  disintegrate  silk.    A 
dilute  solution  weakens  the  silk  fiber,  but 
the  action  is  less  rapid  than  with  cot- 
ton. 

Effect  of  Alkalies  on  the  Animal  Fibers: 
Strong  alkalies,  even  though  cold,  have  a 
softening  effect  on  the  wool  or  silk  fibers, 


108         THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

entirely  disintegrating  them  in  a  short 
time.  A  dilute  boiling  solution  will  also 
dissolve  the  wool.  This  fact  is  made  use 
of  in  the  test  distinguishing  wool  from 
cotton.  Dilute  alkalies  weaken  silk  and 
destroy  the  luster. 

Water.— A  plentiful  supply  of  water  good  for 
laundry  purposes  is  an  important  factor  in  suc- 
cessful laundering.  Good  drinking  water  and 
good  water  for  the  laundry  may  not  necessarily 
be  identical.  The  mineral  matter  held  in  so- 
lution may  be  of  value  in  the  body,  but  be  detri- 
mental in  cleaning  processes.  A  good  water 
for  the  laundry  should  be  clean,  soft,  clear, 
odorless,  free  from  discoloration,  free  from 
iron,  and  from  organic  matter. 

Hard  and  Soft  Water. — Because  water  is  a 
good  solvent,  on  its  way  to  us  through  the  rocks 
and  soil  it  often  collects  soluble  substances  of 
an  undesirable  nature.  The  characteristic 
known  as  hardness  is  due  to  the  presence  of 
lime  salts  gathered  in  this  way.  When  soap  is 
used  with  hard  water,  a  scum  forms  on  the  sur- 
face which  is  composed  of  an  insoluble  lime 
soap.  This  has  no  cleansing  properties,  and  so 


LAUNDRY  PROBLEMS  109 

simply  wastes  the  soap  which  has  been  used. 
If  the  available  supply  of  water  is  hard,  the 
problem  of  the  housekeeper  is  to  find  some 
means  of  removing  the  lime  or  of  reducing  its 
ill  effects. 

Temporary  and  Permanent  Hardness. — Ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  lime  salts  present, 
water  is  said  to  be  temporarily  or  permanently 
hard.  Temporary  hardness  is  caused  by  the 
presence  of  carbonate  of  lime,  and  such  water 
may  be  softened  by  boiling.  The  sediment  pres- 
ent in  almost  any  teakettle  illustrates  this. 

Permanently  hard  water  contains  sulphate 
of  lime  and  can  only  be  softened  by  the  use  of 
some  chemical.  The  cheapest  and  best  is  an 
alkali  such  as  washing  soda,  borax,  or  ammonia. 

Washing  soda,  which  is  most  effective  for  or- 
dinary use,  should  be  used  in  the  following  pro- 
portions unless  the  water  is  extremely  hard: 
For  each  gallon  of  water  use  two  tablespoons 
of  solution  made  by  dissolving  one  pound  of 
washing  soda  in  a  quart  of  boiling  water. 

Borax  is  especially  good  for  colored  goods 
and  wool,  and  even  though  more  expensive  it 
may  be  economy  to  make  the  extra  expenditure 
in  those  cases. 


110         THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

The  only  satisfactory  method  of  getting  rid 
of  iron  is  to  add  washing  soda  to  the  water  and 
then  let  the  water  settle  five  or  six  days  before 
using. 

Soap.— Soap  making,  which  was  formerly  a 
common  household  process,  is  at  present  almost 
unknown.  The  lye  which  was  obtained  from 
wood  ashes  and  the  waste  fat  from  various 
sources  made  a  soap  containing  many  impuri- 
ties and  of  uncertain  quality. 

Soap  may  be  made  of  any  fat  with  caustic 
alkalies  or  lye.  Chemically,  lye  is  a  hydroxid  of 
either  potassium  or  sodium — two  closely  re- 
lated substances  having  similar  chemical  char- 
acteristics and  producing  compounds  of  similar 
nature. 

When  lye  is  mixed  with  a  fat,  it  breaks  up  into 
the  fatty  acids  and  glycerine  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed. The  lye  unites  with  the  fatty  acids  to 
form  a  new  compound,  called  soap,  and  glycer- 
ine is  left  as  a  by-product.  This  process  is 
called  saponification.  As  can  readily  be  seen, 
the  nature  of  the  soap  formed  will  depend,  first, 
on  the  nature  of  the  fats  used,  whether  these  are 
hard  or  soft,  clean  or  rancid;  second,  on  the 
kind  of  alkali  used,  whether  caustic  potash  or 


LAUNDRY  PROBLEMS  111 

caustic  soda;  third,  on  the  nature  and  amount 
of  impurities  contained  in  both  fat  and  alkali ; 
fourth,  on  the  completeness  of  the  process  of  sa- 
ponincation.  If  the  operation  of  soap  making 
is  not  properly  conducted,  the  reaction  between 
the  fat  and  alkali  is  incomplete,  and  a  soap  is 
produced  which  contains  free  fat  and  an  undue 
amount  of  free  alkali.  Such  soap  is  greasy,  un- 
duly caustic,  and  a  poor  cleansing  agent.  Resin 
is  often  added  to  cheap  soaps,  and  while  a 
small  amount  is  of  value  in  -that  it  whitens  the 
clothing,  the  presence  of  large  quantities  should 
be  considered  an  adulteration. 

Home-Made  Hard  Soap. — Dissolve  6  Ibs.  of 
common  washing  soda  in  4  gallons  of  warm  wa- 
ter. Slack  6  Ibs.  of  quicklime  in  just  enough 
water  to  crumble  it  to  powder,  add  the  slacked 
lime  to  the  soda  solution,  stir  the  two  together, 
and  add  4  gallons  of  boiling  water.  Stir  it  thor- 
oughly, let  it  settle,  and  use  the  clear  solution. 
To  this  add  12  Ibs.  of  clarified  grease,  stirring 
in  at  the  same  time  4  ozs.  of  powdered  borax. 
Let  it  boil  until  it  becomes  thick  and  soapy. 
Pour  it  into  a  box  lined  with  muslin  to  allow 
the  contents  of  the  box  being  lifted  out  conven- 
iently. Allow  it  to  stand  a  few  days,  and  then 


112         THE  STUDY  OF  FABEICS 

cut  it  into  pieces  of  convenient  size.  It  will  be 
ready  for  use  in  about  a  month. 

It  is  not  economy  to  use  cheap  and  poorly 
made  soaps  in  the  laundry.  Try  soaps  manu- 
factured by  reliable  firms,  and  choose  the  one 
which  is  most  satisfactory.  A  common  mistake 
is  to  think  that  one  kind  of  soap  will  answer  for 
all  purposes.  In  the  manufacture  of  soap,  when 
just  sufficient  alkali  is  used  completely  to  sa- 
ponify the  fat  present,  the  product  is  known  as 
a  neutral  soap.  If  an  excess  of  alkali  is  used, 
either  a  medium  or  strong  soap  is  used,  depend- 
ing on  the  amount  of  free  alkali  left  in  the  soap. 
The  neutral  or  mild  soap  should  always  be  used 
for  woolen  materials,  delicate  colors,  and  frail 
fabrics.  A  medium  soap  is  best  for  durable 
colored  goods,  and  a  strong  soap  for  most  of  the 
white  materials.  Much  of  the  ordinary  dirt  on 
clothing  is  held  by  a  fat  of  some  sort.  Soap  in 
solution  emulsifies  the  fat,  thereby  releasing 
the  dirt.  Any  free  alkali  present  unites  with 
the  fat  to  form  soap  which  in  turn  aids  in  re- 
moving more  of  the  fat.  This  shows  why  it  is 
advisable  to  use  a  strong  soap  when  there  is 
much  grease  present. 

Soap  Substitutes  and  Accessories. — Soap  is 


LAUNDRY  PROBLEMS  113 

the  best  cleansing  agent  for  general  use  in  the 
laundry,  but  there  are  other  substances  which 
may  often  be  used  to  good  advantage.  Turpen- 
tine, kerosene,  gasoline,  and  paraffin  are  useful 
because  of  their  solvent  action  on  fats.  In  dis- 
solving the  fat  much  of  the  dirt  is  set  free.  An 
objectionable  odor  may  remain  after  using 
these  solvents  unless  the  clothes  are  thoroughly 
rinsed. 

Most  of  the  washing  compounds  on  the  mar- 
ket contain  soap,  an  alkali,  turpentine,  par- 
affin, or  fuller's  earth.  The  best  powders  con- 
tain large  amounts  of  soap  and  small  amounts 
of  alkali.  What  has  already  been  said  concern- 
ing the  action  of  alkalies  should  serve  as  a 
guide  to  the  laundress  in  choosing  a  washing 
compound  if  she  desires  to  use  one. 

Bleach. — Sodium  perborate  (percil)  is  the 
most  valuable  household  bleaching  agent  as 
there  is  little  if  any  harmful  effect  on  the  ma- 
terial. It  is  also  useful  in  washing  white  or 
light  silks,  as  it  prevents  yellowing. 

Bluing. — After  repeated  washing,  white  ma- 
terials gradually  acquire  a  yellowish  tint  unless 
carefully  rinsed,  and  bleached  in  the  fresh  air 
and  sunlight.  Bluing  has  come  into  use  to  coun- 


114         THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

teract  this.  The  abuse  of  bluing  is  that  it  may 
be  used  to  cover  up  the  results  of  careless 
work. 

Indigo,  originally  of  plant  origin,  but  now 
manufactured  artificially,  was  formerly  the 
chief  source  of  bluing  compounds,  but  is  little 
used  at  present. 

Prussian  blue  is  the  most  common  source  to- 
day. It  is  cheap,  gives  a  good  color,  and  is 
readily  soluble.  The  objection  to  its  use  in  the 
laundry  is  that  it  is  an  iron  compound  which 
is  decomposed  by  alkalies,  yielding  iron  rust. 
If  clothes  are  not  carefully  rinsed  until  free  of 
all  soap  and  other  alkali  used  in  washing,  con- 
tact with  the  bluing  will  result  in  tiny  rust  spots 
on  the  clothes. 

Aniline  blues  give  good,  clear  colors.  Some 
may  be  used  successfully  alone,  while  others  re- 
quire an  acid  to  develop  them.  Acetic  acid  or 
vinegar  is  preferable  to  oxalic  as  the  former  is 
volatile  and  has  less  action  on  the  fiber.  These 
blues  actually  dye  the  material  and  should, 
therefore,  be  used  carefully. 

Test  for  Presence  of  Iron  in  Bluing. — Pre- 
pare about  a  teaspoon  of  a  strong  solution  of 
the  bluing  you  wish  to  test.  Add  an  equal 


LAUNDRY  PROBLEMS  115 

amount  of  ordinary  household  ammonia  and 
allow  it  to  stand  from  15  to  30  minutes.  A  red- 
dish brown  precipitate  shows  the  presence  of 
iron. 

Most  of  the  liquid  blues  on  the  market  are  of 
this  type.  If  a  satisfactory  bluing,  free  from 
iron,  is  not  available,  the  objectionable  results 
of  Prussian  blue  may  be  overcome  by  the  use 
of  an  acid  rinse  to  neutralize  the  alkali.  Two 
tablespoons  of  acetic  acid  or  about  a  third  of  a 
cup  of  vinegar  to  a  pail  of  water  will  be  suffi- 
cient under  ordinary  circumstances.  (The 
amount  of  alkali  present  in  the  rinsing  water 
varies  greatly  and,  therefore,  no  absolute  rule 
can  be  given.  A  smaller  amount  might  often 
be  sufficient.) 

Ultramarine  blue  is  also  an  iron  compound 
but  it  does  not  decompose  with  alkali.  It  is  what 
is  often  bought  as  the  ball  bluing,  and  is  in- 
soluble in  water.  Water,  however,  causes  it  to 
break  up  into  very  minute  particles  which 
spread  through  the  liquid  and  give  it  a  blue 
color.  The  water  must  be  stirred,  and  one  must 
be  careful  in  using  it  that  the  clothes  do  not 
get  streaked. 

Test  four  or  five  different  kinds  of  bluing  for 


116         THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

iron  (small  samples  may  undoubtedly  be  ob- 
tained from  your  friends). 

To  Set  Colors.— It  is  always  a  safe  precau- 
tion to  set  the  color  in  most  wash  fabrics,  and 
it  is  decidedly  worth  while  for  delicate  colors. 
Any  substance  which  will  act  as  a  mordant  and 
cause  the  dye  to  be  more  completely  impreg- 
nated in  the  fiber  of  the  cloth  will  serve  the  pur- 
pose. 

Salt  acts  as  a  mordant  for  the  substantive 
dyes  which  are  most  commonly  used  for  cotton 
and  linen,  and,  therefore,  may  be  used  to  advan- 
tage in  the  household  to  aid  in  making  the  col- 
ors fast.  A  handful  of  salt  in  a  dish  of  cold 
water,  however,  is  not  sufficient.  The  material 
or  garment  must  be  placed  in  a  strong,  hot 
solution  and  allowed  to  stand  until  the  water  is 
cool  to  obtain  the  best  results.  If  the  material 
is  to  be  shrunken  before  making  up,  the  salt 
may  be  added  to  the  bath  and  ' '  two  birds  killed 
with  one  stone." 

Because  salt  is  cheap  and  on  hand  in  every 
household,  it  is  probably  the  best  for  general 
use.  The  effect  of  brine  is  said  not  to  be  last- 
ing. There  are  other  mordants  which  may  be 


LAUNDRY  PROBLEMS  117 

used  with  equally  good  results,  possibly  better 
in  some  cases. 

Sugar  of  lead  is  good  for  all  colors  except 
pink  and  blue. 

Saltpeter  is  good  for  pinks  and  blues. 

Vinegar  is  said,  by  good  authority,  to  be  best 
for  pinks. 

Alum  is  recommended  for  greens,  mauves, 
purples,  etc. 

The  following  proportions  should  be  used: 
To  one  gallon  of  water  add  %  CUP  of  mild  vine- 
gar, or  2  cups  of  salt,  or  1  tablespoon  of  alum, 
or  1  tablespoon  of  sugar  of  lead  (which  is 
poison). 

Experiments  have  shown  that  the  best  results 
are  obtained  when  the  fabric  is  treated  before 
each  washing,  as  the  color  is  not  permanently 
set. 

The  value  of  rinsing  a  blue  garment  in  a 
strong  bluing  solution  to  counteract  the  faded 
appearance  is  appreciated  by  many.  Other 
delicate  colors  would  often  profit  by  a  similar 
treatment  in  a  dye  solution  of  the  same  color. 
By  having  bottles  of  various  colored  dye  solu- 
tions at  hand,  little  extra  time  would  be  con- 
sumed. 


118          THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

To  Remove  Stains.— The  ordinary  washing 
process  is  sufficient  to  get  rid  of  most  of  the 
dirt  in  clothing,  but  some  of  the  spots  and  stains 
require  special  treatment.  The  best  and  easiest 
time  to  remove  such  stains  is  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible after  the  misfortune  has  taken  place.  As 
this  is  not  always  possible,  it  is  wise  to  go  over 
the  clothes  to  be  laundered  to  see  if  any  special 
attention  is  necessary.  Some  stains  are  insolu- 
ble in  water,  or  soap  and  water,  or  may  be  made 
so  by  the  action  of  heat,  and  thus  become  per- 
manently set  in  the  washing. 

First,  if  possible,  the  nature  of  the  stain 
should  be  determined.  Second,  some  substance 
should  be  found  in  which  the  stain  is  soluble. 
With  that  accomplished,  the  removal  will  be  a 
simple  process.  It  is  not  always  possible  to 
find  a  solvent,  and  the  next  resort  is  something 
which  will  form  a  soluble  substance.  Should 
this  also  fail,  the  last  possibility  is  the  use  of 
a  bleaching  agent.  A  bleaching  agent  should 
be  used  only  when  everything  else  fails,  as  it 
will  remove  the  color  and  may  weaken  the  fabric 
if  not  used  with  great  care. 

The  various  classes  of  stains  will  be  taken 
up  and  methods  of  removal  suggested.  If  one 


LAUNDRY  PROBLEMS  119 

does  not  work  well  in  your  particular  case,  try 
another.  Always  use  some  absorbent  material 
under  the  spot  so  that  the  loosened  dirt  will  not 
simply  spread.  Use  a  soft  cloth,  rubbing  gently 
and  softening  the  outline  as  much  as  possible. 

When  cleaning  spots,  run  a  thread  around 
them  so  as  to  be  able  to  find  them  easily  after 
the  garment  is  wet. 

Before  using  any  cleaner,  try  it  first  on  the 
inside  of  a  seam  to  see  whether  it  will  change 
the  color. 

To  raise  the  nap  of  wool  goods  place  a  wet 
piece  of  the  same  material  over  the  spot  and 
iron  with  a  moderately  hot  iron.  The  piece 
will  adhere  and  the  nap  raise  when  pulled 
apart.  Needless  to  say,  if  the  nap  is  worn  off 
this  will  accomplish  very  little. 

A  round  bottle  filled  with  hot  water  is  su- 
perior to  a  flatiron  for  pressing  seams  in  deli- 
cate goods. 

Grease. — Many  times  it  is  grease  that  holds 
dirt,  as  has  been  suggested.  Special  care  is 
necessary  in  that  case  only  when  the  material 
is  such  that  it  cannot  be  submitted  to  ordinary 
laundry  processes. 


120         THE  STUDY  OF  FABEICS 
/ 

Solvents: 
Alcohol, 
Ether, 
Chloroform, 

Carbon  tetrachloride  (carbona), 
Gasoline, 
Naphtha  soap  and  water. 

Carbon  tetrachloride  (CC14)  is  also  sold 
under  the  commercial  name  of  carbona.  They 
are  one  and  the  same  thing,  but  the  carbona 
costs  about  one-half  more.  The  great  advan- 
tage lies  in  the  fact  that  this  compound  is  not 
inflammable  as  most  of  the  other  solvents  for 
grease,  so  may  be  safely  used  around  lights 
and  fire.  It  is  too  expensive  to  use  when  im- 
mersion of  the  article  is  necessary. 

Gasoline  is  the  most  practical  reagent  for 
use  when  the  entire  article  needs  cleaning.  It 
must  be  used  away  from  the  fire  to  avoid  any 
possibility  of  serious  accidents.  Place  the  gar- 
ment, well  covered  with  gasoline,  in  a  vessel 
which  may  be  tightly  covered,  and  allow  it  to 
stand  several  hours,  or  over  night.  If  the  gaso- 
line is  warmed  by  being  placed  in  a  dish  of  hot 
water,  the  dirt  will  be  dissolved  more  quickly 


LAUNDRY  PROBLEMS  121 

and  easily.  Especially  soiled  places  may  re- 
quire a  little  rubbing  to  aid  in  loosening  the 
dirt.  Rinse  in  clean  gasoline  and  hang  in  the 
open  air. 

A  pure,  neutral  soap  may  be  used  with  gaso- 
line, the  same  as  with  water.  It  is  necessary, 
of  course,  to  rinse  the  garment  thoroughly  in 
clean  gasoline  after  using  the  soap.  A  com- 
mercial cleaner,  Putnam's  Dry  Cleaner,  the  only 
commercial  compound  known  by  the  author  to 
be  on  the  market  at  the  time  of  this  writing, 
may  also  be  used  with  good  results. 

The  soiled  gasoline  should  not  be  thrown 
away,  as  the  impurities  will  settle  to  the  bottom 
and  the  clear  gasoline  may  be  poured  from  the 
top. 

It  is  economy  to  use  plenty  of  gasoline,  as 
the  results  will  be  more  satisfactory,  and  with 
proper  care  it  may  be  used  many  times. 

Wagon  grease,  if  dried  on,  should  first  be 
softened  with  lard  or  oil  and  then  washed  in 
soap  and  water,  or  one  of  the  solvents  for 
grease  may  be  used. 

For  paint  and  varnish  probably  the  best  sol- 
vents are :  turpentine,  alcohol,  and  ammonia. 

Meat  juice,  blood,  or  mucus  may  be  consid- 


122          THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

ered  together,  as  all  are  protein  compounds  and 
react  to  similar  treatment.  Heat  will  coagulate 
these  substances,  as  it  would  an  egg,  and  for 
that  reason  must  be  avoided. 

1.  Soak  in  cold  water,  then  wash  with  soap 
and  water. 

2.  Add  ammonia  or  salt  to  water,  then  wash 
with  soap  and  water. 

Milk,  cream,  and  cocoa  contain  fat,  protein, 
and,  in  some  cases,  coloring  matter. 

The  same  applies  to  tea  and  coffee  if  cream 
or  milk  has  been  added. 

Use  some  fat  solvent  first,  and  then  wash 
in  cold  water.  Soaking  in  borax  water  after 
removing  the  fat  may  sometimes  be  necessary. 
Glycerine  will  aid  in  removing  tea  stains.  Soak 
the  spot  in  glycerine,  and  then  wash. 

Fruit  Stains. — Fruit  stains  are  held  in  the 
material  by  pectin,  a  gelatinous  substance  which 
makes  it  possible  for  fruits  to  "jell,"  as  we 
say.  This  is  soluble  only  in  boiling  water. 
Spread  the  stained  surface  over  a  dish.  Pour 
boiling  water  through  it  from  a  height,  so  as 
to  strike  the  stained  part  with  force. 

Glycerine  has  been  found  of  some  assistance 
in  removing  peach  stains,  and  camphor  for  fruit 


LAUNDRY  PROBLEMS  123 

stains  in  general.  Alcohol  in  boiling  water  is 
also  a,  good  solvent  for  fruit  stains. 

In  the  case  of  old  stains  it  may  be  necessary 
to  use  a  bleaching  agent,  as  Javelle  water.  This 
may  be  used  only  on  white  materials,  as  it  will 
remove  the  color  also. 

Iron  Rust. — 1.  On  white,  wet  the  stained 
part  with  borax  and  water  or  ammonia,  and 
spread  it  over  a  bowl  of  boiling  water.  Ap- 
ply a  ten  per  cent  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid 
(muriatic),  drop  by  drop,  until  the  stain 
brightens.  Dip  it  at  once  into  water.  If  the 
stain  does  not  disappear,  repeat  the  process. 
After  removing  the  stain,  rinse  well  with  am- 
monia to  neutralize  any  acid  that  may  remain. 

2.  A  ten  per  cent  solution  of  oxalic  acid 
may  be  used  as  above.     Oxalic  acid  is  not  so 
detrimental  to  the  fabric,  but  is  a  deadly  poison 
even  in  the  dilute  solution  and  so  should  be 
labeled  poison. 

3.  Wet  the  stained  part  with  a  mixture  of 
salt  and  lemon  juice.    Place  it  in  the  sunshine. 
This  is  a  much  weaker  reagent  than  the  two 
preceding,  and,  therefore,  will  take  a  longer 
time,  and  is  often  not  so  effective. 

4.  The  commercial  ink  eradicators  may  be 


124        THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

used  in  some  cases.  Kinse  thoroughly  after 
using  them. 

5.  Erusticator,  a  commercial  product,  may 
be  used  satisfactorily  in  removing  rust  stains. 
It  is  a  chlorine  compound  and  acts  as  a  bleach- 
ing agent.  Einse  thoroughly  after  using  it. 
Though  there  may  be  others  designed  for  the 
same  purpose,  at  the  present  time  the  author 
does  not  know  of  any. 

Ink  is  often  difficult  to  remove,  as  it  varies  so 
greatly  in  composition.  It  is  well  to  experi- 
ment with  a  corner  of  the  spot  before  operat- 
ing on  the  whole. 

1.  If  the  stain  is  fresh,  soak  it  in  milk.    Use 
more  milk  as  the  old  becomes  discolored. 

2.  Wet  it  with  cold  water.     Apply  oxalic 
acid  to  a  stain  on  white  cloth,  let  it  stand  a  few 
minutes,  and  rinse  it.     Repeat  until  the  stain 
disappears.    Rinse  it  in  water  to  which  borax 
or  ammonia  has  been  added.    This  will  neutral- 
ize  the   acid  and   prevent  weakening  of  the 
fabric. 

3.  Commercial  ink  eradicators  are  most  ef- 
fective as  a  rule.    The  removal  is  accomplished 
quickly  and  with  little  detriment  to  the  material 
if  they  are  carefully  used. 


LAUNDRY  PROBLEMS  125 

Milk  is  the  only  reagent  given  which  will  not 
destroy  color. 

Iodine  or  Medicine. — Iodine  and  many  medi- 
cines are  dissolved  in  alcohol,  and,  therefore,  it 
is  the  natural  solvent  to  use  in  removing  the 
stains.  Ammonia,  chloroform,  and  ether  may 
also  be  used.  Ammonia  is  very  good  for  iodine 
stains.  A  dilute  solution  of  caustic  soda  or 
caustic  lye  may  also  be  used. 

Grass  Stains. — It  is  the  chlorophyll  or  green 
coloring  matter  in  plants  which  is  removed  with 
difficulty.  Alcohol  is  perhaps  the  best  solvent. 
Ammonia  and  water  may  be  safely  used  if  the 
colors  are  not  delicate. 

Hydrogen  peroxide  may  be  used  with  am- 
monia and  is  more  effective  as  it  also  acts  as  a 
mild  bleaching  agent. 

Mildew  is  a  true  mold,  and,  like  all  plants,  re- 
quires warmth  and  moisture  for  its  growth. 
When  the  heat  and  moisture  necessary  are  pres- 
ent in  a  cloth,  mildew  grows  upon  the  fibers. 
During  the  first  stage  of  its  growth  the  mold 
may  be  removed,  but  in  time  it  destroys  the 
fibers. 

1.    Soak  it  in  some  acid,  as  lejnon  juice,  vine- 


126         THE  STUDY  OE   FABRICS 

gar,  or  buttermilk  and  salt  and  expose  it  to  di- 
rect sunlight. 

2.  Wet  it  with  a  paste  of  soft  soap  and  pul- 
verized chalk.    Expose  it  to  sunlight. 

3.  Javelle  water  may  be  tried  in  cases  of  ad- 
vanced growth.    Success  cannot  always  be  ex- 
pected. 

BLEACHING  AGENTS 

Javelle  water,  to  be  used  as  a  bleaching 
agent,  may  be  made  as  follows : 

1  Ib.  washing  soda, 

1/2  Ib.  bleaching  powder  (calcium  hypochlor- 
ite), 

1  qt.  boiling  water, 

2  qts.  cold  water. 

Dissolve  the  soda  in  the  boiling  water  in  a 
granite  pan  and  let  it  cool. 

Dissolve  the  bleaching  powder  in  the  cold  wa- 
ter; let  it  settle;  pour  the  clear  liquid  into  the 
soda ;  and  let  it  settle.  Pour  off  the  clear  liquid, 
bottle  it  and  put  it  away  in  a  dark  place.  This 
gives  a  25%  solution.  Mixed  with  equal  por- 
tions of  water  it  may  be  used  cautiously  to  re- 
move spots.  If  materials  are  to  remain  in  the 
solution  for  some  time,  it  should  be  diluted  to 


LAUNDRY  PROBLEMS  127 

about  a  2%  solution.  Wash  the  material  thor- 
oughly in  several  waters  and  finally  in  dilute 
ammonia  water. 

To  Clean  White  Shoes. — There  are  many 
preparations  on  the  market,  such  as  Albo,  Buck 
"White,  Nuway,  Bixby's  White  Shoe  Dressing, 
and  Whittemore's  White  Shoe  Dressing,  and 
many  of  them  do  good  work.  Directions  for  use 
are  given  on  the  bottle  or  box.  Bon  Ami  is  in- 
expensive and  is  on  hand  in  many  households. 
It  may  be  used  as  follows:  Brush  the  shoes 
to  remove  any  loose  dirt,  and  then  apply  a 
suds  of  Bon  Ami  and  water  with  a  small 
brush.  When  the  water  evaporates,  the  sur- 
face is  covered  with  a  thin  coating  of  the  Bon 
Ami.  It  does  not,  however,  have  the  pasted 
appearance  which  many  of  the  preparations 
give.  While  covering  the  dirt,  it  also  partially 
removes  the  soiled  spots. 

To  Clean  White  Kid  Gloves. — 1.  Art  gum, 
if  used  frequently  for  slightly  soiled  spots,  will 
keep  gloves  in  wearable  condition  for  some  time, 
postponing  the  necessity  for  a  thorough  clean- 
ing. 

2.  A  paste  of  gasoline  and  flour  well  worked 
into  the  gloves  is  effective.  Care  must  be  taken 


128         THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

to  keep  the  gloves  away  from  fire  until  the  gaso- 
line has  entirely  evaporated. 

3.     Carbon  tetrachloride  may  be  used. 

Sulphur  Dioxide  Bleaching. — Javelle  water 
or  chlorine  in  any  form  cannot  be  used  for  silk 
or  wool.  For  these  the  fumes  of  burning  sul- 
phur, or  these  fumes  dissolved  in  water,  must 
be  used. 

The  garment  should  be  wet  or  the  special 
spots  moistened  and  hung  in  some  small  en- 
closed space  above  a  piece  of  burning  sulphur. 
The  sulphur  candles,  to  be  had  at  any  drug 
store,  are  convenient  for  this  use. 

A  cone  of  heavy  paper  may  be  used  as  the 
"smoking  room." 

To  remove  small  spots,  cut  a  small  opening 
in  the  apex  of  the  cone  and  hold  the  moistened 
spots  above  the  opening  so  that  they  may  be 
acted  upon  by  the  fumes. 

' '  They  that  wash  on  Monday  have  all  the  week  to  dry. 
They  that  wash  on  Tuesday  are  not  so  much  awry. 
They  that  wash  on  Wednesday  are  not  so  much  to 

blame. 

They  that  wash  on  Thursday  wash  for  shame. 
They  that  wash  on  Friday,  wash  in  need. 
And  they  that  wash  on  Saturday — oh,  they're  sluts 

indeed/'  OLP  ENGLISH  PROVERB. 


LAUNDRY  PROBLEMS  129 

Let  us  forget  if  possible  our  prejudice  in 
favor  of  Monday  and  determine  whether  it  is 
not  more  sensible  and  convenient  to  have  the 
weekly  washing  done  on  Tuesday  rather  than 
on  Monday  as  has  so  long  been  the  custom. 

First  the  clothes  should  be  gone  over,  locat- 
ing spots  and  rents  which  need  attention.  "A 
stitch  in  time  saves  nine/'  is  applicable  here, 
as  a  small  hole  may  be  much  increased  in  size 
during  the  washing  process. 

Soaking  clothes  over  night  is  felt  by  many 
to  reduce  greatly  the  labor  necessary  in  remov- 
ing the  dirt. 

Saturday  has  many  special  duties  already, 
and  most  housekeepers  do  not  want  to  take  the 
time  for  these  preliminaries.  It  is  not  justifi- 
able to  take  Sunday  for  it,  and,  therefore,  Tues- 
day seems  the  more  logical  day  for  the  laundry 
work. 

Before  continuing  to  wash  on  Monday,  there- 
fore, consider  your  individual  case  and  be  sure 
you  have  a  better  reason  than  that  of  custom 
only. 

Many  garments  worn  Sunday  would  suffice 
for  another  day's  wearing  if  the  laundress  could 
wait  for  them  until  Tuesday. 


130          THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

Hanging  Clothes. — Be  sure  the  clothesline  is 
clean.  Clothes  should  be  hung  wrong  side  out, 
so  far  as  possible,  with  the  threads  of  the  ma- 
terial straight.  Sheets  and  other  large  straight 
pieces  should  be  hung  with  the  hems  together 
and  the  hemmed  ends  pinned  to  the  line  to  pre- 
vent whipping  in  the  wind.  Arrange,  so  far  as 
possible,  to  hang  garments  so  that  the  wind  may 
blow  through  them.  They  will  dry  more  quickly 
and  with  less  injury  to  the  clothes.  Make  a 
cheesecloth  bag  in  which  to  dry  dainty  small  ar- 
ticles such  as  doilies,  embroidery,  and  fine  hand- 
kerchiefs. The  bag  may  be  hung  on  the  line. 

Skirts  will  sometimes  keep  their  shape  better 
if  hung  by  the  waistband  instead  of  the  hem. 
A  safe  rule  to  follow  is  to  hang  the  garment  in 
as  nearly  the  natural  shape  as  possible.  It  is 
difficult  to  iron  properly  a  garment  which  has 
been  badly  hung.  It  is  worth  while  to  shake 
and  straighten  articles  before  hanging  them  on 
the  line,  and  also  when  they  are  taken  down. 
This  will  save  time  in  the  preparation  for  iron- 
ing, and  also  in  the  actual  ironing. 

Much  time  may  be  saved  by  the  busy  mother 
in  the  home  if  knitted  underwear,  hosiery,  many 
of  the  towels,  etc.  are  not  ironed.  The  absorp- 


LAUNDRY  PROBLEMS  131 

tive  power  is  lessened  by  smoothing  with  a  hot 
iron,  and  if  they  have  been  boiled  and  dried  in 
the  air  and  sunshine  further  disinfection  should 
not  be  necessary.  Sheets  properly  hung  and 
carefully  folded  when  taken  down  may  be  made 
to  look  very  well  if  the  upper  end  is  simply 
pressed  a  little.  The  housekeeper  and  home- 
maker,  confronted  as  she  is  with  innumerable 
demands  upon  her  time,  must  choose  those  tasks 
she  considers  most  worth  while  if  she  is  to  be 
an  efficient  worker.  An  aluminum  sprinkler 
which  may  be  used  in  any  bottle  of  convenient 
size,  is  a  valuable  aid  in  sprinkling  clothes.  It 
makes  a  fine  spray  and  accomplishes  the  desired 
end  quickly.  It  may  be  purchased  for  ten  cents. 
Warm  water  is  absorbed  more  quickly  than 
cold,  and  should  always  be  used  when  the  clothes 
are  to  be  ironed  soon. 

To  Wash  Woolens. — The  characteristics  of 
the  wool  fiber  and  its  reaction  to  acids  and 
alkalies  have  already  been  given,  so  the  reasons 
for  the  following  precautions  should  be  under- 
stood. The  temperature  of  the  water  is  not  so 
important  as  keeping  the  temperature  the  same 
throughout  the  washing  and  drying  process.  It 
is  change  of  temperature  rather  than  any  par- 


132          THE  STUDY  OP  FABEICS 

ticular  temperature  which  causes  the  shrink- 
age. Tepid  or  lukewarm  water  is  recom- 
mended, as  that  is  at  the  temperature  which  can 
be  most  conveniently  retained  while  drying. 
Never  dry  woolens  close  to  a  fire,  as  the  steam 
formed  will  cause  the  material  to  shrink. 

A  neutral  soap  should  be  used  in  the  form  of 
a  thin  solution.  Avoid  rubbing  soap  on  the  fab- 
ric. Many  prefer  ammonia  or  borax  to  soap, 
and  others  use  one  or  the  other  with  soap. 
Borax  or  ammonia  is  especially  valuable  if 
the  clothes  are  badly  soiled  or  if  the  water  is 
hard.  Punch  and  knead  the  garment  to  loosen 
the  dirt,  but  do  not  rub  it.  Use  as  many  waters 
as  necessary,  being  careful  to  have  the  tempera- 
tures as  nearly  the  same  as  possible.  Put  it 
through  a  wringer  which  has  been  loosened,  or 
squeeze  the  water  out  with  the  hands.  Avoid 
twisting  it  as  that  also  causes  shrinkage. 

The  following  method  gives  good  results  with 
little  effort.  Dissolve  a  large  bar  of  pure,  neu- 
tral soap  in  enough  water  to  make  2  qts.  of  the 
solution.  Keep  it  in  a  fruit  jar  and  use  it  as  it 
is  needed.  To  this  amount  of  soap  use  a  cup 
of  borax,  or,  for  small  washings,  use  eight  times 
as  much  soap  solution  as  borax.  Place  the  soap 


LAUNDRY  PROBLEMS  133 

solution  and  borax  in  a  receptacle  containing 
cold  soft  water.  Immerse  the  clothes  and  allow 
them  to  stand  over  night  or  for  several  hours. 
Rinse  them  in  clean,  cold,  soft  water  and  hang 
them  to  dry  in  a  cool  or  cold  place. 

Recent  experiments  in  the  home  economics 
department  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin  have 
shown  that  the  use  of  cold  water  (as  taken 
from  the  cistern  or  tap)  and  drying  at  room 
temperature  gave  the  best  results.  The  flannel 
in  this  way  was  kept  white  and  fluffy  and  shrunk 
the  least. 

Knitted  underwear  and  hosiery  are  kept  in 
the  best  condition  by  drying  them  over  frames, 
which  may  be  bought  or  made.  A  thin  board 
cut  in  the  shape  of  the  garment  works  well.  In 
the  case  of  sweaters,  shawls,  or  such  articles 
as  may  stretch  or  shrink  out  of  shape,  pin  them 
to  a  sheet  on  the  floor  so  that  the  garment  cor- 
responds to  the  original  measurements. 

Blankets  should  be  brushed  and  shaken  to 
remove  all  dust  before  putting  them  in  the  suds. 
Do  not  attempt  more  than  one  pair  at  a  time,  as 
they  are  clumsy  to  handle.  Work  as  rapidly  as 
possible.  The  less  time  consumed  in  washing 
and  drying,  the  better.  When  almost  dry,  the 


134         THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

blankets  should  be  brushed  to  raise  the  nap  and 
make  them  fluffy.  This  not  only  improves  the 
appearance  but  also  increases  the  warmth.  The 
more  air  spaces  enclosed  among  the  fibers,  the 
less  conduction  of  heat  there  will  be>  and,  there- 
fore, the  greater  warmth  retained. 

To  Wash  Laces. — Fine,  delicate  laces  should 
sometimes  be  dry  cleaned  rather  than  submit- 
ted to  water  at  all.  To  wash  them,  use  a 
warm  suds  of  a  mild  or  neutral  soap,  to  which 
has  been  added  borax  or  ammonia.  Squeeze 
rather  than  rub  them  to  loosen  the  dirt,  as  rub- 
bing is  injurious  to  the  delicate  threads.  If  the 
lace  is  carefully  basted  to  a  piece  of  cheesecloth, 
less  care  will  be  necessary.  After  rinsing  thor- 
oughly, the  lace  should  be  stretched  into  shape 
on  a  smooth,  round  bottle,  or  pinned  to  a  soft 
pad,  being  careful  to  see  that  all  the  points  are 
held  in  place.  Lace  may  be  stiffened  by  rins- 
ing in  a  mixture  of  two  tablespoons  of  alcohol 
to  one  cup  of  water.  Lace  curtains  should  be 
brushed  to  remove  all  loose  dust  before  placing 
in  the  soap  solution.  If  curtain  stretchers  are 
not  available,  good  results  may  be  obtained  by 
pinning  the  curtains  out  on  sheets,  if  care  is 
taken  to  have  them  straight  and  even. 


LAUNDRY  PROBLEMS  135 

Handkerchiefs. — If  any  member  of  the  family 
has  a  cold,  the  handkerchiefs  should  be  disin- 
fected in  some  way.  Boiling  for  half  an  hour 
will  do.  This  may  prevent  the  cold  from  being 
passed  on  to  the  rest  of  the  family. 

Machinery  for  the  Laundry. — In  this  day  of 
power  machinery  when  men  on  the  farm,  and 
everywhere  in  fact,  are  doing  all  of  their  hard 
work  with  its  aid,  we  still  find  the  majority  of 
women  washing  by  hand  as  their  grandmothers 
did.  "In  the  good  old  way,"  do  we  say?  Not 
if  "we"  happen  to  be  the  ones  who  are  doing 
the  work.  Who  is  at  fault  may  be  a  debatable 
question.  Perhaps  it  is  the  woman  who  will  not 
insist  that  she  be  given  these  mechanical  aids, 
and  it  may  be  a  selfish  man  who  refuses  to  fur- 
nish the  necessary  money.  Mr.  Allan  L.  Ben- 
son, in  an  article  in  the  October,  1913,  number 
of  Good  Housekeeping,  says  women  have  not 
machinery  because  they  lack  "nerve."  If  he  is 
correct,  may  they  speedily  acquire  the  necessary 
"nerve"  from  somewhere. 

There  are  four  types  of  washing  machines 
which  may  be  described  briefly  as  follows : 

1.     The  "Dolly"  consists  of  a  milking  stool 


136         THE  STUDY  OP  FABRICS 

which  revolves  in  the  center  of  a  tub  of  clothes. 
This  agitating  of  the  clothes  forces  the  soap 
and  water  through  them  and  thereby  removes 
the  dirt.  This  may  tear  the  clothes. 

2.  Another  machine  uses  a  perforated  re- 
volving cylinder  which  holds  the  clothes  and  an 
outer  one  for  soap  and  water.  The  better  ma- 
chines of  this  type  are  arranged  to  reverse  the 
action  automatically  or  with  divisions  to  pre- 
vent knotting  of  the  clothes.  If  well  filled  with 
water  and  not  overloaded  with  clothes,  no  harm 
can  come  to  even  delicate  fabrics. 

J.  No  cylinder  is  used  in  this  type  of  ma- 
cnine,  which  cleans  by  oscillation,  or  rocking  the 
clothes  in  soap  and  water.  It  is  very  satisfac- 
tory. 

4.  The  principle  involved  in  suction  washers 
is  that  of  pressure  and  suction.  There  is  a  lever 
attached  to  metal  cones.  These  are  pushed  down 
against  the  clothes,  then  suddenly  lifted  away 
from  them  and  out  of  the  water.  A  suction  so 
caused  draws  out  the  dirt  which  has  been  loos- 
ened by  the  pressing. 

The  following  table  gives  the  prices  of  the 
various  types: 


LAUNDRY  PROBLEMS  137 


Hand 

Water 
Motor 

Electric 
Motor 

I                        $10 

$12.50  to 
$16.00 

$50 

2                         $12 

$37.50 

$75  to  $275 

3                            .    . 

$100  to  $125 

4                  $1  to  $3.50 

$16 

$85 

Note. — Most  of  these  prices  were  obtained 
from  an  article  by  Miss  L.  Ray  Balderston  in 
the  October,  1913,  Good  Housekeeping  Maga- 
zine. 

Many  of  the  ordinary  hand  machines  may  be 
connected  with  a  gasoline  engine  at  little  ex- 
pense. A  gasoline  engine  of  ~Ly2  horsepower 
equipped  on  a  truck  costs  $40. 

To  use  washing  machines  most  efficiently 
there  should  be  plenty  of  hot  and  cold  water 
easily  accessible,  also  a  drain  in  connection  with 
the  machine  to  carry  off  the  dirty  water. 

Mangles. — A  mangle  is  a  device  to  save  hand 
ironing  of  the  flat  pieces.  It  is  a  great  time  and 
energy  saver  for  the  laundress.  Mangles  are 
of  two  types  in  general :  hot  and  cold.  The  cold 
mangle  simply  presses  out  the  creases  without 
giving  a  gloss.  The  sterilizing  power  of  the 
heat  is  lost  in  this  case.  A  simple  one  which 


138         THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

may  be  screwed  to  a  table  can  be  purchased  for 
$6  or  $7.  A  stronger  one  with  a  table  attached 
may  cost  up  to  $25.  The  hot  mangles  may  be 
heated  with  gas  and  operated  by  hand  or  motor 
power.  These  usually  consist  of  a  hot  steel  cyl- 
inder and  a  cloth  covered  cylinder  between 
which  the  clothes  are  pressed.  The  cost  varies 
from  $25  to  $75. 

The  electric  iron  is  far  more  efficient  and  sat- 
isfactory to  use  than  any  other.  If  electricity 
is  available,  an  electric  iron  should  be  a  part  of 
the  laundry  equipment. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  laundering,  a 
few  words  concerning  the  use  of  power  ma- 
chines on  the  farm  may  not  be  out  of  place. 

It  would  be  so  easy  on  many  farms  to  make 
use  of  the  gasoline  engine  in  running  a  washing 
machine,  wringer,  and.mangle  with  just  as  great 
saving  to  the  housewife  as  to  the  farmer  when 
it  pumps  water  for  the  stock  or  grinds  the  feed. 
Someone  has  suggested  that  the  farmer  has 
installed  power  machinery  because  it  has  meant 
dollars  in  his  pocket.  This  is  not  so  evident 
when  labor  saving  machinery  is  installed  in  the 
home.  Are  there  not  other  things  of  more  im- 
portance, however,  than  the  dollar  which  has 


LAUNDRY  PROBLEMS ,  139 

assumed  such  large  proportions?  The  health, 
comfort,  and  happiness  of  the  wife  and  mother 
surely  deserve  consideration. 

It  has  been  done  and,  therefore,  it  can  be 
again.  A  young  Wisconsin  farmer  told  about 
getting  his  wife  a  power  washing  machine  for 
her  Christmas  present.  He  connected  it  him- 
self and  the  total  expense  was  under  $25.  He 
also  had  running  water  in  his  home.  i  i  May  his 
tribe  increase." 

Another  solution  of  the  laundry  problem  on 
the  farm  is  that  of  a  cooperative  laundry  in  con- 
nection with  the  creamery.  Fillmore  County  in 
Minnesota  has  such  a  laundry  in  operation.  To 
quote  from  an  editorial  in  the  Sioux  City,  la., 
Tribune:  "The  record  of  this  cooperative  laun- 
dry is  noteworthy.  About  750  farm  washings 
are  done  each  month  and  the  monthly  cost  to 
each  family  averages  $1.96.  There  is  probably 
an  actual  saving  to  each  family  through  elimi- 
nating the  expense  of  a  washing  plant  in  each 
home.  But  the  other  benefits  far  outweigh  the 
money  saving.  Women  and  girls  of  the  farm 
are  relieved  of  a  burden  that  has  contributed 
largely  to  the  dissatisfaction  with  farm  life. 
They  have  more  time  to  make  the  farm  home 


140         THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

attractive  for  the  men  and  boys,  who  thus  share 
in  the  benefit.  Social  activities  of  this  commu- 
nity will  be  stimulated  and,  in  the  long  run, 
homes,  schools,  and  churches  will  show  in- 
creased efficiency  through  the  release  of  women 
from  the  drudgery  of  the  churn  and  the  wash- 
tub." 


CHAPTER  VII 
HYGIENE  OF  CLOTHING 

At  the  present  time  much  is  being  said  and 
written  about  the  conservation  of  health.  How 
to  keep  well  is  of  far  greater  importance  than 
how'  to  get  well.  There  is  even  some  talk  of 
having  municipal  physicians  paid  a  salary  to 
prevent  illness  rather  than  cure  those  who  have 
become  the  victim,  of  disease.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, only  a  question  of  being  sick  or  well,  as 
the  terms  are  ordinarily  considered,  but  of  car- 
ing for  the  body  in  such  a  way  as  to  keep  it  at 
the  highest  point  of  efficiency.  All  should  be  in- 
terested in  those  things  which  will  assist  in 
keeping  the  body  in  such  condition  and  conserv- 
ing energy  to  the  point  where  life  will  mean 
the  most  to  others  and  to  oneself.  One  should 
not  be  satisfied  with  a  mere  existence  or  even 
escape  from  the  doctor's  care.  Proper  clothing 
is  one  of  the  means  of  attaining  this  end  and 
is,  therefore,  worthy  of  careful  consideration, 

141 


142          THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

While  age,  climatic  conditions,  and  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  wearer  all  affect  the  ultimate  work- 
ing out  of  the  problem,  nevertheless  there  are 
some  general  principles  which  will  help  in  the 
determination  of  what  is  best,  considering  the 
conditions  of  daily  life. 

One  might  ask  the  question,  "Why  do  we 
wear  clothes  I ' '  Different  answers  would  natu- 
rally be  expected,  as  the  function  of  clothing  is 
quite  different  under  different  circumstances. 
To  summarize,  the  functions  of  clothing  may  be 
given  (1)  as  a  means  of  protection;  (2)  to  sat- 
isfy our  sense  of  modesty;  (3)  to  satisfy  our  in- 
stinctive love  of  adornment;  and  (4)  that  we 
may  appear  like  others,  or  be  in  fashion.  In 
cold  climates  the  protection  afforded  by  the 
clothing  worn  is  of  primary  importance,  while 
to  the  naked  savage  in  Africa,  whose  only  cloth- 
ing is  a  string  of  beads,  love  of  adornment  heads 
the  list.  Adornment  and  fashion  are  of  first  im- 
portance in  the  minds  of  many,  and  are  alone 
considered  when  choosing  clothing.  Fashion 
should  not  be  ignored,  but  neither  should  the 
extremes  of  the  designer  be  followed  at  the  ex- 
pense of  proper  protection  or  the  sacrifice  of  the 
sense  of  modesty.  Compliance  with  the  de- 


HYGIENE  OF  CLOTHING          143 

mands  of  fashion  is  good  up  to  a  certain  point. 
Unless  dressed  according  to  the  prevailing 
modes  the  majority  of  people  are  uncomfort- 
able, become  self-conscious,  lose  their  poise,  and 
are  unable  to  do  their  best  work.  One  should 
strive  to  dress  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  uncon- 
scious of  clothes.  That  is  the  condition  which 
will  make  possible  the  largest  amount  of  effec- 
tive work.  Someone  has  said,  "To  be  well 
dressed  is  not  vanity  but  sanity, "  and  it  is 
true  when  considered  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  comfort  and  poise  of  the  individual. 

As  mentioned  above,  age,  climate,  and  occu- 
pation greatly  affect  the  clothes  problem.  The 
infant,  because  of  its  proportionately  large  sur- 
face area,  loses  heat  much  more  rapidly  than 
the  adult,  and,  therefore,  must  be  protected  by 
warmer  clothing.  Wool  next  to  the  child  is 
necessary  through  the  second  summer.  Old  per- 
sons frequently  feel  the  need  of  wool,  because, 
since  they  are  less  active,  their  circulation  be- 
comes sluggish  and  it  is,  therefore,  more  difficult 
to  keep  sufficiently  warm.  It  is  impossible  to 
lay  down  any  hard  and  fast  rules,  as  individuals 
differ  in  their  requirements,  but  as  a  general 
rule  the  normal  adult  does  not  feel  the  need 


144         THE  STUDY  OF  FABKICS 

of  woolen  undergarments.  The  warm  houses 
and  public  buildings  of  the  present  time  make  it 
seem  wiser  to  wear  less  in  the  house  and  then 
have  a  heavy  wrap  to  wear  out  of  doors. 

One  of  the  important  objects  of  clothing  is 
to  aid  in  the  maintenance  of  a  uniform  body 
temperature.  The  temperature  of  the  normal, 
healthy  individual  is  about  98°  F.  Slight  varia- 
tions may  not  be  serious,  but  a  change  of  two 
or  three  degrees  one  way  or  the  other  is  a  dan- 
ger signal.  The  human  organism  maintains 
this  constant  temperature  by  either  physical 
or  chemical  means.  The  physical  means  em- 
ployed are,  (1)  varying  the  amount  of  blood 
sent  to  the  skin,  which  regulates  the  amount 
of  heat  lost  by  conduction,  convection,  and  radi- 
ation; (2)  varying  the  amount  of  moisture  given 
off  through  perspiration,  and  thereby  affecting 
the  loss  of  heat  through  evaporation.  The  chem- 
ical regulation  is  so  called  because  it  increases 
the  amount  of  oxidation  in  the  body.  When  the 
temperature  is  lowered,  the  nerves  of  the  skin 
cause  a  constriction  of  the  blood  vessels  sup- 
plying the  skin,  thereby  increasing  the  blood 
supply  of  the  internal  organs.  Increased  oxi- 
dation increases  the  heat  given  off  just  as  tho 


HYGIENE  OF  CLOTHING          145 

addition  of  fuel  to  the  furnace  means  more 
available  heat.  Proper  clothing  decreases  the 
necessity  for  the  chemical  regulation,  saving 
energy  and  fuel  (or  food). 

The  physical  properties  of  textiles  which  were 
given  in  previous  chapters  should  be  reviewed, 
as  those  which  affect  the  conduction  of  heat, 
absorption,  and  evaporation  of  moisture  are  of 
importance  in  considering  the  hygiene  of  cloth- 
ing in  general,  and  especially  of  underclothing. 
Wool  and  silk  are  poor  conductors  of  heat,  and 
linen  and  cotton  better  conductors.  Wool  feels 
warm  to  the  touch  because  it  does  not  take  heat 
away  from  the  body.  Linen  and  cotton  feel 
cool  and,  therefore,  make  pleasant  clothing  for 
summer.  The  amount  of  air  enclosed  in  the 
meshes  of  the  fabric  affects  the  conduction  of 
heat  even  more  than  the  nature  of  the  fiber. 
Still  air  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat,  and  a  cot- 
ton or  linen  fabric,  if  loosely  woven  or  finished 
with  a  napped  surface,  is  quite  warm.  Outing 
flannel  is  a  good  example  of  the  effect  of  air 
spaces  in  increasing  the  warmth  of  a  cotton  fab- 
ric. Linen  absorbs  and  gives  off  moisture  rap- 
idly, cotton  and  silk  more  slowly,  and  wool  most 
slowly  of  all.  The  hygroscopicity,  or  the  prop- 


146         THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

erty  of  absorbing  moisture  without  seeming 
wet,  is  high  in  wool  and  silk  and  lower  in  linen 
and  cotton.  Wool  may  absorb  30%  of  its  weight 
of  moisture  without  feeling  wet. 

Loosely  woven  linen  makes  an  ideal  material 
for  summer  underwear  because  it  absorbs  and 
gives  off  moisture  very  readily,  thereby  cooling 
the  skin.  The  high  price  is  prohibitive  for  most 
people,  so  the  linen  mesh  underwear  is  not  much 
used.  A  knitted  cotton  garment  does  very  well, 
and  the  lower  price  makes  these  garments  more 
popular  than  the  linen.  Linen  and  cotton  can 
be  laundered  much  more  easily  than  wool  and 
silk,  which  is  another  point  in  their  favor  for 
use  in  undergarments. 

Wool  would  make  an  ideal  material  for  cold 
weather  undergarments  because  of  its  low  heat 
conduction,  if  it  did  not  hold  moisture  for  so 
long  a  time  and  ' '  felt ' '  in  washing.  Both  objec- 
tions may  be  partially  overcome,  especially  the 
latter,  by  mixing  cotton,  linen,  or  silk  with  the 
wool.  Infants,  invalids,  and  aged  people  who 
exercise  little  and  do  not  perspire  freely,  need 
the  warmth  of  the  woolen  material,  and  for  them 
the  wool  and  cotton,  wool  and  linen,  or  wool 
and  silk  garments  are  satisfactory.  A  light- 


HYGIENE  OF  CLOTHING          147 

weight  wool  garment  worn  over  a  thin  cotton 
one  is  found  by  some  people  to  be  a  good  com- 
bination. The  cotton  takes  up  the  moisture 
readily  and  it  is  then  taken  up  and  given  off 
slowly  by  the  wool.  This  arrangement  provides 
for  the  absorption  of  the  perspiration  and  pre- 
vents the  chilling  of  the  body. 

The  average  normal  individual  is  more  com- 
fortable when  clothed  in  cotton  undergarments 
of  various  weights.  Undergarments  made  of 
silk  have  a  pleasant  "feel"  and  the  heat  con- 
duction is  low.  The  price  is  prohibitive  for 
most  people,  however,  and  it  is,  therefore,  little 
used  in  undergarments. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  heavy  and 
warm  are  not  synonymous.  A  garment  may  be 
heavy  and  still  not  warm.  Two  light-weight 
garments  are  much  warmer  than  one  heavier 
one  because  of  the  layer  of  air  between  the  two 
garments. 

The  requirements  for  outer  and  undergar- 
ments differ  somewhat,  as  the  garment  worn 
outside  should  be  such  that  the  wind  will  not 
penetrate  easily,  while  a  loosely  woven  under- 
garment offers  greater  protection  because  of 
the  spaces  retaining  heated  airt 


148          THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

The  importance  of  keeping  clean  the  clothing 
worn  next  the  skin  can  hardly  be  overestimated. 
The  sweat  glands  of  the  normal  adult  secrete 
about  three  pints  of  perspiration  daily,  and 
most  of  this  must  be  taken  up  by  the  clothing. 
When  the  pores  of  the  cloth  become  clogged, 
proper  absorption  and  ventilation  are  pre- 
vented, which  means  that  the  body  remains 
moist  and  exposure  to  a  draft  causes  a  chill. 
Some  fabrics  are  naturally  cleaner  than  others. 
Linen  contains  less  natural  oil  than  cotton,  and, 
since  the  fibers  are  longer,  has  fewer  protrud- 
ing ends  to  catch  dirt  and  bacteria.  Experi- 
ments show  that  about  three  times  as  much  dirt 
clings  to  cotton  as  to  linen,  and  about  twice  as 
many  bacteria  are  collected  by  the  skin  when 
cotton  garments  are  worn.  Cotton  fabrics,  how- 
ever, may  be  easily  laundered,  and  the  high  tem- 
perature and  soap  used  are  satisfactory  disin- 
fectants. Cotton  garments  may,  therefore,  be 
kept  in  a  sanitary  condition  if  changed  fre- 
quently. Wool  furnishes  an  excellent  feeding 
ground  for  bacteria,  especially  when  soiled,  and 
the  difficulty  with  which  it  is  laundered  makes 
an  added  objection  to  its  use  next  the  skin. 
Sleeping  between  woolen  blankets,  which  can- 


HYGIENE  OF  CLOTHING          149 

not  be  washed  frequently,  is  a  most  unsanitary 
practice,  as  the  above  statement  indicates. 

Many  girls  and  women  are  not  sufficiently 
careful  about  frequent  washing  of  corsets  and 
shields.  Corsets  may  be  easily  and  thoroughly 
cleaned  by  the  use  of  a  small  brush  and  plenty 
of  soapsuds.  After  rinsing  in  clear  water  and 
drying  in  the  sunshine,  the  garment  is  as  fresh 
and  clean  as  when  new.  Shields  should  be 
soaked  a  few  hours  in  tepid  suds,  prepared  with 
a  pure  neutral  soap  and  soft  water,  and  rinsed 
in  cold  water.  Hot  water  makes  the  rubber  brit- 
tle, and  should  always  be  avoided.  A  brush 
may  be  used  here  also,  but  it  should  not  be 
necessary  if  the  shields  are  washed  frequently. 
They  should  then  be  hung  to  dry  in  a  cool  place, 
never  near  the  stove  or  over  a  register,  as  the 
heat  will  spoil  the  rubber.  Shields  may  also  be 
kept  in  good  condition  for  several  days  if  they 
are  washed  off  each  time  the  garment  is  re- 
moved. This  may  be  done  by  using  a  cloth 
dipped  in  soapy  water,  and  afterward  one 
rinsed  in  clear  water.  Thus  the  shields  need 
not  be  removed  from  the  garment.  They  must 
be  removed  frequently,  however,  and  washed 
thoroughly. 


150         THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

A  word  concerning  the  receptacles  in  which 
soiled  clothes  are  kept  may  not  be  out  of  place 
here.  A  vulcanized  or  white  metal  holder  is 
preferable  to  the  more  common  wicker  variety, 
since  they  can  be  kept  clean  and  sanitary  with 
little  difficulty.  The  necessity  for  this  is  ob- 
vious, when  it  is  remembered  that  large  num- 
bers of  bacteria  are  found  in  soiled  clothes.  A 
washable  bag  of  firm  material,  if  kept  perfectly 
clean,  may  be  found  satisfactory. 

The  Corset. — While  it  pleases  fashion  at 
present  to  have  the  waist  large  and  the  cloth- 
ing worn  loosely,  in  a  few  seasons  the  tendency 
may  again  be  toward  the  small  waist  and  con- 
sequent tight  lacing.  In  considering  the  sub- 
ject of  proper  clothing,  therefore,  we  cannot 
omit  a  discussion  of  the  results  of  constriction 
of  the  waist  and  chest  by  the  use  of  a  tight  cor- 
set. There  may  be  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
whether  the  present  modes,  allowing  greater 
freedom  of  movement  and  a  possibility  of  deep 
breathing,  are  the  result  of  education  along 
these  lines  or  whether  it  is  simply  a  whim  of 
the  designer.  We  trust  and  believe  that  the 
trend  at  the  present  time  is  toward  more  sen- 
sible and  hygienic  dress  for  women.  There  are 


HYGIENE  OF  CLOTHING          151 

still  many  women  who  are  ready  to  follow  all 
the  extremes  of  fashion  regardless  of  whether 
they  are  contrary  to  the  laws  of  health  or  not. 
Yet  there  is  an  increasing  number  of  women  in 
America  who  adapt  prevailing  modes  to  their 
own  individuality  and  to  their  ideas  of  what 
makes  for  health  and  efficiency. 

It  is  believed  by  some  that  all  corsets,  how- 
ever worn,  are  not  only  unnecessary  but  harm- 
ful as  well.  Others  feel  that  the  straight  front 
corset  with  the  large  waist  and  space  above  the 
waist  to  allow  of  deep  breathing,  is  not  harm- 
ful if  worn  loosely.  Many  of  the  newer  corsets 
are  low  in  the  bust,  some  coming  just  above  the 
waistline.  Women  who  have  never  worn  cor- 
sets find  this  type  comfortable.  They  give  per- 
fect freedom  above  the  waistline  and  simply 
hold  the  abdomen  in  place  and  support  the 
clothes  at  the  waist. 

The  old  hourglass  type  of  corset  which  made 
the  waist  as  small  as  possible,  by  pushing  either 
up  or  down  any  flesh  or  organs  which  were  in 
the  way,  should  be  condemned  from  every  point 
of  view.  The  downward  pressure  is  especially 
harmful  because  it  causes  displacement  of  the 
organs  located  in  that  region. 


152         THE  STUDY  OF  FABEICS 

Dr.  T.  Sadler,  in  "The  Science  of  Living  or 
The  Art  of  Keeping  Well,"  says  on  this  sub- 
ject: "Corsets  restrict  the  breathing;  they 
weaken  the  abdominal  muscles;  they  displace 
the  internal  organs,  favoring  constipation,  and 
indirectly  contributing  to  the  causes  of  indi- 
gestion and  congestion  of  the  liver  and  pelvic 
organs.  The  corset  is  indirectly  chargeable 
with  the  vast  amount  of  the  sufferings  of 
womankind  usually  designated  as  l  female  com- 
plaints.' "  The  present  day  corsets,  mentioned 
previously,  cannot  be  charged  with  the  evils 
spoken  of  by  Dr.  Sadler.  The  pressure  in  this 
case  is  low  on  the  abdomen,  where  there  are 
few  organs,  and  serves  as  a  support  holding 
the  organs  in  place  instead  of  causing  the  down- 
ward pressure.  With  the  possible  looseness  at 
the  waist  and  above,  there  need  be  little  if 
any  interference  with  the  circulation  and  deep 
breathing.  The  front  laced  corset  is  found  to 
be  more  comfortable  by  those  whose  work  re- 
quires that  they  sit  most  of  the  day.  The  pres- 
sure of  the  front  steel  on  the  nerve  center 
causes  discomfort  in  some  cases  and  many  doc- 
tors recommend  the  front  lace  corset  because 
it  does  away  with  the  steel  in  the  front.  Tight 


HYGIENE  OF  CLOTHING          153 

garters  on  any  corset  are  bad  because  of  the 
downward  pressure  which  should  always  be 
avoided  for  reasons  already  given. 

Corsets  are  not  necessary  for  the  woman 
with  strong  muscles  unless  she  has  a  large  ac- 
cumulation of  fat  at  the  abdomen  which  needs 
to  be  kept  in  place.  Unless  all  garments  be 
suspended  from  the  shoulder,  however,  which 
is  not  always  convenient,  the  discomfort  from 
the  bands  at  the  waistline  may  be  much  worse 
than  a  loose  corset  giving  plenty  of  breathing 
space.  Hanging  all  garments  from  the  shoul- 
ders may  cause  an  undue  strain  on  the  back. 
This  again  is  something  which  each  individual 
must  decide  for  herself,  keeping  in  mind  the 
general  principles  of  health  and  hygiene. 

Shoes. — Shoes  should  protect  the  feet  from 
hard  or  sharp  objects  and  from  heat  and  cold. 
It  is  important  that  the  feet  be  kept  warm  and 
dry,  as  cold  feet  are  frequently  responsible 
for  colds,  disturbance  of  the  bowels,  and  inflam- 
mation of  the  pelvic  organs.  A  physician  who 
has  had  large  experience  in  a  children's  hospi- 
tal said  that  cold  feet  were  the  cause  of  more 
colic  in  babies  than  any  other  one  thing.  Cold 
extremities  prevent  proper  digestion.  Wearing 


154         THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

rubbers  is  not  considered  fashionable  by  some, 
but  a  pair  of  rubbers  worn  in  stormy  weather 
will  save  much  discomfort  and  possibly  several 
doctor's  bills.  Rubber  is  impervious  to  both  per- 
spiration and  air,  and,  therefore,  should  only  be 
worn  when  necessary.  The  low  sandal  variety 
are  best  under  ordinary  conditions.  The  ques- 
tion of  wearing  low  shoes  in  cold  weather  should 
not  be  overlooked.  The  blood  vessels  are  near 
the  surface  in  the  legs  and  arms,  especially  at 
the  joints,  as  ankles  and  elbows,  and  conse- 
quently insufficient  covering  of  these  parts 
means  a  chilling  of  the  blood.  This  undue  loss 
of  heat  in  the  extremities  means  a  proportion- 
ate congestion  in  some  internal  organ,  with  a 
possibility  of  serious  results.  It  should  be  re- 
membered also  that  such  a  loss  of  heat  means  a 
loss  of  energy  which  might  have  been  stored  up 
for  use  in  time  of  emergency  or  expended  in  ac- 
complishing something  worth  while. 

The  close  fitting,  extremely  pointed-toed 
shoes  with  the  absurd  French  heels  cannot  be 
too  strongly  condemned.  High  heels  are  espe- 
cially harmful  to  young  girls  who  are  just 
developing  into  womanhood,  and  mothers 
should  "  think  twice "  before  allowing  their 


HYGIENE  OF  CLOTHING          155 

young  daughters  to'  wear  them.  The  natural 
shape  of  the  foot  should  not  be  lost  sight  of  in 
selecting  shoes.  It  is  unlike  the  hand  in  that 
the  large  toe,  which  corresponds  with  the 
thumb,  is  usually  longer  than  the  others,  and 
instead  of  running  straight  ahead,  as  so-called 
"anatomical"  shoes  are  built,  slopes  slightly 
outward.  The  shoe  should,  therefore,  be  some- 
what pointed,  slanting  from  both  sides  toward 
the  center,  although  most  of  the  slope  should 
come  on  the  outside,  following  the  natural 
curves  of  the  foot.  The  natural  lines  of  the  hu- 
man foot  are  graceful  and  beautiful,  and  if  we 
would  only  accustom  our  eyes  to  its  real  shape 
as  displayed  in  properly  fitting  shoes,  we  would 
soon  admire  nature's  work  and  cease  futile  at- 
tempts to  improve  upon  it.  Discomfort  means 
lowered  efficiency,  and  it  is  important,  therefore, 
to  have  the  feet,  as  well  as  the  other  parts  of  the 
body,  comfortably  clothed.  Laced  shoes  can  be 
more  readily  adjusted,  and  for  that  reason  some 
consider  them  preferable  to  the  buttoned  style. 
If  the  buttons  are  properly  placed  when  the 
shoe  is  purchased  or  after  being  worn  for  a 
few  days,  however,  buttoned  shoes  may  be  satis- 
factory for  the  normal  individual.  Experience 


156          THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

with  a  large  variety  of  materials  has  shown 
leather  to  be  the  best  for  general  use.  For  shoe- 
making  purposes  it  is  unsurpassed  because  it 
is  tough,  flexible,  porous,  and  reasonably  water- 
proof, and  has  a  moderate  degree  of  ventilation. 
It  is  not  ideal  because  it  retains  heat  and  per- 
spiration to  an  undesirable  degree,  has  an  un- 
pleasant odor  and  cannot  be  kept  clean,  to  say 
nothing  of  sterile.  The  same  pair  of  shoes 
should  not  be  worn  constantly,  since  they  do  not 
become  thoroughly  aired  and  dried  out  during 
the  night.  It  is  more  satisfactory  and  economi- 
cal to  have  two  pairs  of  shoes  for  ordinary  wear, 
and  change  frequently. 

Just  a  word  about  the  selection  and  care  of 
stockings.  It  would  be  ideal  from  a  hygienic 
standpoint  if  white  hosiery  could  be  worn  all  the 
time,  but  for  obvious  reasons  this  is  not  con- 
venient. The  dye  used  in  black  or  colored  hose 
may  cause  trouble  if  the  skin  is  bruised  and 
broken.  Numerous  incidents  could  be  cited  of 
blood  poisoning  being  caused  in  this  way. 
Sometimes  it  has  meant  being  laid  up  a  few 
days,  and  occasionally  even  the  loss  of  a  limb. 
How  to  prevent  such  a  situation  is  the  question 
which  interests  us.  Something  may  be  told 


HYGIENE  OF  CLOTHING          157 

about  the  permanency  of  the  dye  by  moistening 
the  handkerchief  or  any  piece  of  soft  white  cloth 
and  rubbing  the  stocking.  If  the  cloth  is  stained 
the  stockings  will  crock  when  worn.  Tight  or 
ill  fitting  shoes  frequently  cause  blisters  which 
result  in  trouble.  If  the  shoe  rubs  at  the  heel 
and  begins  to  redden  the  skin,  a  thin  piece  of 
velvet  pasted  in  the  shoe,  with  the  napped  side 
next  to  the  stocking,  will  prevent  friction. 
Stockings  which  are  too  short  are  uncomfort- 
able and  do  not  wear  well  because  of  the  con- 
stant pressure.  On  the  other  hand,  if  they  are 
too  large  the  surplus  forms  in  creases  or  folds 
which  are  also  uncomfortable.  The  "happy 
medium "  of  a  perfect  fit  should  be  arrived  at 
if  possible  for  the  sake  of  comfort  and  economy. 
For  the  person  with  sensitive  feet  the  right  and 
left  hose,  which  are  now  manufactured,  are  ad- 
visable, but  are  unnecessary  for  the  normal  in- 
dividual. 

One  Piece  Garments. — From  the  inside  out, 
one  piece  garments  are  best  from  a  hygienic 
standpoint.  They  are  more  comfortable,  as  all 
who  have  tried  both  will  testify.  Extra  bands 
and  layers  of  materials  are  eliminated.  Such 
garments  may  be  worn  loose,  since  they  are 


158         THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

held  in  place,  always  looking  neat  and  trim. 
Union  suits  are  constantly  gaining  in  favor, 
also  combination  suits,  princess  slips,  and  one 
piece  dresses.  Fashion  is  partially  and  perhaps 
largely  responsible  for  the  trend  in  that  direc- 
tion, but  however  that  may  be,  we  trust  that 
the  condition  may  become  even  more  prevalent 
in  spite  of  changes  in  fashion. 

Long  Skirts. — The  wearing  of  long  skirts  on 
the  street  is  most  deplorable  from  a  sanitary 
standpoint.  Any  thoughtful  woman  can  easily 
realize  that  quantities  of  dirt  and  millions  of 
bacteria  are  picked  up  by  the  skirt  as  it  sweeps 
over  dusty  walks  and  streets.  These  are  natu- 
rally distributed  over  the  body  and  the  disease 
producing  bacteria  may  cause  trouble. 

Collars. — The  dressing  of  the  neck  has  been 
the  subject  of  much  discussion,  and  there  are 
various  opinions  held  at  the  present  time. 
There  are  some  points,  however,  which  are  gen- 
erally conceded,  and  a  knowledge  of  these  will 
help  in  solving  the  individual  problem.  High, 
tight  collars  interfere  with  the  circulation  and 
may  affect  the  eyes.  Exposure  of  the  throat 
and  chest  in  cold  weather  is  unwise  for  the 
average  individual,  as  it  means  an  undue  loss 


HYGIENE  OP  CLOTHING          159 

of  heat  and  energy.  It  is  just  as  unwise,  how- 
ever, to  bundle  up  the  neck  with  heavy  furs  or 
mufflers.  This  excessive  covering  of  the  neck 
and  chest  causes  the  skin  to  perspire  freely 
and  become  tender  so  that  the  least  exposure  to 
cold  results  in  congestion,  thus  increasing  the 
possibility  of  sore  throat,  colds,  and  pneumonia. 

Hats. — Large  or  heavy  hats  are  uncomfort- 
able, either  because  of  the  weight  or  the  diffi- 
culty with  which  they  are  balanced.  Nervous- 
ness and  an  unnatural  position  may  result  be- 
cause of  the  effort  to  balance  and  maintain  the 
poise.  Tight  hatbands  affect  circulation  and 
cause  discomfort.  Men  err  on  this  point  more 
frequently  than  women  but  when  the  mode  in 
vogue  calls  for  the  close  fitting  hat  for  women, 
it  is  well  to  have  this  possible  danger  in  mind. 

Veils. — Care  should  be  exercised  in  selecting 
veils,  as  those  which  contain  spots  or  figures  are 
hard  on  the  eyes.  If  the  figures  are  far  enough 
apart,  so  that  they  need  not  come  in  front  of 
the  eyes,  this  annoyance  may  be  eliminated*. 
Washable  veils  should  be  purchased  so  that 
they  may  be  kept  clean.  Veils  become  soiled 
the  same  as  anything  else,  anci  as  they  come  in 


160         THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

contact  with  the  mouth  and  face,  it  is  especially 
important  that  they  be  kept  clean. 

It  hardly  seems  necessary  at  this  time  to  refer 
to  the  wearing  of  garments  at  night  which  have 
been  worn  during  the  day,  but  lest  there  be  some 
who  have  never  thought  of  the  necessity  of 
airing,  especially  the  undergarments,  we  are 
mentioning  it  here.  The  discussion  concerning 
absorption  and  evaporation  of  perspiration  ex- 
plains the  reasons  for  this.  The  union  suit, 
shoes,  and  stockings  should  be  placed  where 
they  will  be  thoroughly  aired  during  the  night. 
The  dress  or  waist  should  be  hung  either  wrong 
side  out,  or  at  least  with  the  inside  and  shields 
sufficiently  exposed  so  that  they  are  well  aired. 

If  one  is  not  sufficiently  warm  without  the 
underclothing  at  night,  a  separate  suit  should 
be  used.  Aside  from  the  reasons  already  sug- 
gested, the  added  bodily  comfort  is  an  impor- 
tant fact.  For  greater  warmth  sleeping  gar- 
ments of  wool  or  heavy  cotton  flannel  may  be 
worn.  They  may  be  purchased  ready-made  in 
various  styles,  or  they  may  also  be  made  at 
home.  One  style,  more  especially  for  children 
than  adults,  is  made  with  a  draw  string  in  the 
bottom  giving  extra  protection  for  the  feet. 


HYGIENE  OF  CLOTHING         161 

Large  pockets  near  the  bottom  of  the  gown  fur- 
nish a  warm,  cozy  place  for  the  feet  on  a  cold 
night.  Garments  are  also  made  with  feet  using 
either  knitted  material  or  cotton  flannel.  Those 
are  especially  nice  for  children.  The  use  of 
sleeping  bags  for  children  who  are  restless  at 
night  and  "kick  the  covers  off"  will  save  a  great 
deal  of  worry  on  the  part  of  the  mother.  These 
may  be  made  of  a  fourth  of  a  blanket  folded 
together  the  shape  of  a  pillowcase.  It  can  be 
held  together  by  coat  hooks  fastening  on  the 
shoulders.  A  sweater  or  heavy  woolen  jacket 
must  be  worn  to  keep  the  arms  and  shoulders 
warm.  Mittens  or  sleeves  long  enough  to  cover 
the  hands  will  be  needed,  as  the  hands  should 
be  kept  outside.  This  is  important  as  it  re- 
moves the  temptation  of  self-abuse. 

To  quote  from  "Textiles"  by  Woolman  and 
McGowan:  "When  all  is  said,  personal  en- 
vironment and  idiosyncrasy  must  influence  an 
individual's  choice  of  textiles  and  manner  of 
dress.  Wool  may  be  the  right  material  for  one 
case,  because  it  does  not  permit  rapid  evapora- 
tion of  moisture ;  in  other  cases,  this  property  is 
disadvantageous.  The  value  of  the  study  of  the 
hygiene  of  clothing  lies  in  the  ability  it  gives  to 


162         THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

make  an  intelligent  adjustment  of  clothing  to 
one's  needs,  and  further,  to  see  the  value  of 
dressing  according  to  good  sense  rather  than 
fashion.  Women  are  flagrant  offenders,  but 
not  all  the  efforts  of  the  clothing  reformers 
should  be  directed  at  them.  As  a  whole,  the 
clothing  for  men  shows  superior  good  sense  to 
women's,  but  men's  attire  is  quite  deficient  in 
its  adjustment  to  heat  regulation,  nor  can  much 
be  said  for  some  of  its  details,  such  as  stiff,  un- 
ventilated  hats  and  stand-up  collars.  It  may 
be  unusual  to  defend  women's  hats,  but  from 
a  hygienic  standpoint  they  are  generally  better 
than  the  derby  and  top  hat." 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  ECONOMICS  OF  CLOTHING 

"It  is  estimated  that  nearly  $15,000,000,000 
are  spent  annually  in  the  United  States  in 
household  maintenance  for  the  items  of  food, 
shelter,  and  clothing.  Omitting  the  $2,650,000,- 
000  that  man  spends  for  tobacco  and  intoxi- 
cants, it  leaves  over  $12,000,000,000  spent  on 
food,  shelter,  and  clothing.  Over  this  expendi- 
ture woman  has  more  or  less  complete  control/' 
This  is  quoted  from  the  bulletin  describing  the 
courses  offered  in  the  Home  Economics  depart- 
ment of  the  University  of  Wisconsin.  While 
the  production  of  food  and  clothing  is  largely 
in  the  hands  of  men,  the  consumption  or  use  of 
these  goods  or  products  is  directed  by  women. 
Dr.  Edward  T.  Devine  of  Columbia  University 
says,  "To  woman  has  fallen  the  task  of  direct- 
ing how  the  wealth  brought  into  the  house  shall 
be  used ;  whether  much  or  little  shall  be  made  of 
it,  and  what  kind  of  wealth  shall  be  brought." 

163 


164         THE  STUDY  OF  FABEICS 

He  says  also,  "  There  are  three  ways  in  which 
prosperity  may  be  increased :  We  may  choose 
more  wisely  what  things  we  shall  produce;  we 
may  produce  more  efficiently;  we  may  consume 
more  economically.  The  wiser  choice  and  the 
more  economic  use  alike  fall  within  the  range 
of  what  in  economics  is  called  consumption  or 
demand/'  After  pointing  out  that  the  third 
method  has  greater  immediate  possibilities  than 
the  other  two,  and  that  the  first  is  more  im- 
portant than  the  second,  he  adds :  "  It  is  the 
present  duty  of  the  economist  to  insist  upon 
this,  to  magnify  the  office  of  the  wealth  ex- 
pender,  to  accompany  her  to  the  very  thresh- 
old of  the  home  that  he  may  point  out,  with 
untiring  vigilance,  its  woeful  defects,  its  empti- 
ness caused  not  so  much  by  lack  of  income  as 
the  lack  of  knowledge  of  how  to  spend  wisely. " 
Perhaps  these  quotations  from  authorities  in 
this  line  will  help  to  a  realization  of  the  respon- 
sibility which  rests  on  the  shoulders  of  every 
housekeeper  and  all  other  women  who  are 
spending  unwisely  their  share  of  the  $12,000,- 
000,000.  The  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  to  give 
a  few  suggestions  which  will  help  in  solving  the 
clothing  problem. 


THE  ECONOMICS  OF  CLOTHING  165 

The  majority  of  thoughtful  women  should  be 
and  are  interested  in  obtaining  the  information 
which  will  make  it  possible  for  them  to  buy  most 
wisely  the  things  needed  for  themselves  and 
their  families.  The  home  is  the  greatest  factor 
in  the  happiness  of  the  race,  and  in  it  woman's 
part  is  supreme.  As  she  becomes  more  intelli- 
gent in  selection  and  purchase,  the  home  in- 
creases in  value  and  attractiveness.  Training 
for  economy  in  consumption  should  raise  the 
levels  of  social  life.  If  a  person  chooses  to 
spend  an  undue  amount  on  clothes  or  is  waste- 
ful in  buying  because  of  ignorance,  there  must 
of  necessity  be  that  much  less  for  education, 
travel,  recreation,  and  other  forms  of  higher 
life. 

Dress  has  an  influence  on  the  wearer  as  well 
as  on  the  observer.  One  loses  her  self-respect 
when  dressed  in  ragged  or  soiled  garments.  A 
woman  who  is  over-dressed  or  inappropriately 
dressed  is  uncomfortable  herself  and  wins  the 
respect  of  others  with  difficulty.  Good  nature 
may  be  increased  or  decreased  according  as  the 
clothes  worn  are  clean,  comfortable,  and  ap- 
propriate, or  the  reverse.  Perhaps  on  first 
thought  it  may  seem  an  exaggeration  to  say  that 


166         THE  STUDY  OF  FABEICS 

neat  clothing  is  a  factor  in  virtue,  but  obser- 
vation will  prove  that  it  is  easier  "to  be  good" 
when  one  is  properly  clothed. 

Dressing  Economically. — There  are  differ- 
ences of  opinion  as  to  what  is  the  most  economi- 
cal method  of  dressing,  and  it  is  perfectly  rea- 
sonable that  it  should  be  so,  since  what  is  econ- 
omy in  one  case  may  be  an  extravagance  under 
different  circumstances.  There  may  be  individ- 
ual preferences,  also,  which  deserve  considera- 
tion. Some  women  prefer  a  number  of  inex- 
pensive ready-made  garments  to  a  few  high 
priced  ones.  In  some  homes  most  of  the  sewing 
is  done  in  the  house,  a  dressmaker  coming  each 
season  to  assist  the  mother  and  daughters  with 
the  making  of  new  garments  and  remodeling  old 
ones.  Some  ask  if  the  time,  energy,  nervous 
strain,  and  results  obtained  warrant  the  use 
of  this  method.  That  depends  on  the  attitude 
of  the  workers  and  the  ability  of  the  dress- 
maker. Some  women  enjoy  sewing  if  someone 
plans  and  directs  the  work.  Many  others  feel 
that  the  saving  of  time  and  worry  when  gar- 
ments are  purchased  ready-made  balances  the 
additional  expense.  The  business  woman,  who 
has  little  free  time,  cannot  afford  to  use  her 


THE  ECONOMICS  OF  CLOTHING  167 

leisure  in  sewing,  or  even  in  selecting  materials 
and  having  the  fittings  required  by  the  ordinary 
dressmaker.  A  woman  with  a  normal  figure  can 
find  ready-made  garments  which  require  little 
if  any  fitting.  For  such  a  one  little  time  is 
required  for  shopping. 

Ready-made  garments  are  being  made  more 
simply  and  of  a  better  grade  of  material  than 
formerly,  so  that  one  trained  to  appreciate  good 
material  and  good  design  is  able  to  select  satis- 
factory garments  at  a  reasonable  price.  Some 
professional  women  prefer  another  plan.  They 
order  their  gowns  at  the  higher  class  customs 
tailors  or  dressmakers.  The  best  material  is 
purchased  and  "  exclusive "  styles  are  chosen, 
avoiding  extremes  so  that  the  garments  may  be 
used  two  or  three  seasons  without  alteration. 
They  feel  that  they  thus  preserve  the  dignity 
and  individuality  of  dress  without  spending  too 
much  time  or  money  on  it.  Others  of  this  type 
are  satisfied  with  the  best  of  ready-made  gar- 
ments, and  they  save  the  time  which  would  be 
spent  with  the  tailor.  There  is  also  a  large  num- 
ber of  women  who  use  a  combination  of  several 
of  the  methods  suggested.  Suits,  coats,  and  tail- 
ored skirts,  for  example,  may  be  purchased 


168         THE  STUDF  OF  FABRICS 

ready-made;  afternoon  and  evening  dresses 
may  be  made  by  a  good  dressmaker;  and  the 
plain  sewing  may  be  done  at  home.  This  is 
only  suggestive,  the  object  being  to  bring  to 
mind  the  various  methods  which  have  proved 
successful. 

Someone  has  well  said:  "Economy  lies  in 
getting  few  things,  but  good  ones.  It  is  mani- 
fest economy  to  get  a  suit  or  coat  that  will 
last  and  look  well  for  two  years  or  more ;  also 
to  choose  a  conservative  color  and  style,  so  that 
the  suit  will  not  be  conspicuously  out  of  style 
the  second  season. "  This  principle,  referred 
to  several  times  before,  can  hardly  be  over-em- 
phasized. Cheap  things  are  never  economy  if 
durability  is  a  desired  quality.  A  standard  ma- 
terial, as  serge,  always  gives  better  value  for 
the  money  than  a  material  of  some  new  weave. 
It  costs  no  more  to  make  up  good,  durable  ma- 
terial than  poorer  qualities,  and  since  the  gar- 
ments made  of  cheap,  slimsy  material  must 
be  replaced  after  a  short  time,  the  appar- 
ent economy  in  the  initial  purchase  is  found 
to  be  a  wasteful  extravagance.  The  young 
girl  who  is  earning  five  or  six  dollars  a 
week  is  unwise  when  she  purchases  a  suit  of  a 


THE  ECONOMICS  OF  CLOTHING  169 

striking  color  and  design.  In  a  short  time  the 
attractiveness  has  largely  disappeared.  If  the 
same  amount  of  money  had  been  put  into  a  serge 
suit  of  conservative  color  and  style,  it  would 
continue  to  look  well  for  two  or  three  years.  To 
be  sure  young  girls  like  bright,  showy  things 
and  tire  of  the  plain,  serviceable  materials.  It 
is  perfectly  natural  that  they  should  have  this 
desire,  and  it  should  be  satisfied  in  so  far  as  is 
consistent  with  the  amount  which  may  be  spent 
for  clothes.  This  color  can  be  obtained  much 
more  economically,  and  satisfactorily  in  the  end, 
by  the  use  of  collars,  ties,  belts,  etc.  The  girl 
or  woman  of  small  means,  after  thoughtfully 
considering  all  sides  of  the  clothes  problem,  will 
find  a  joy  and  satisfaction  in  the  planning  and 
scheming  which  will  go  far  toward  making  the 
limited  allowance  buy  the  articles  needed. 

When  purchasing  leather  goods,  as  shoes, 
gloves,  purses,  etc.,  remember  that  good  leather 
is  not  cheap,  and  also  that  cheap  or  imitation 
leathers  are  not  durable.  A  pair  of  good,  well 
made  shoes  will  often  outwear  two  pairs  of 
cheap  ones.  However,  shoes  are  not  always  dur- 
able in  proportion  to  the  high  price.  The  fine, 
soft  kid  are  expensive  but  not  durable,  so  judg- 


170         THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

ment  must  be  used.  It  is  always  economy  to  have 
at  least  two  pairs  of  shoes  at  a  time,  since  they 
wear  longer  if  allowed  to  become  thoroughly 
aired  and  dried  frequently.  One  pair  of  gloves 
at  $1.50  or  more  gives  better  service  than  three 
or  four  pairs  of  cheap  ones.  This  does  not 
mean  that  expensive  gloves  may  not  occasion- 
ally be  purchased  at  a  reduced  price.  To  be 
sure  that  one  is  getting  a  "real"  bargain  one 
must  either  be  a  good  judge  of  leather,  or  make 
the  purchase  at  a  reliable  store.  Good  kid  may 
be  repeatedly  cleaned,  while  a  poor  quality 
often  looks  bad  after  a  few  treatments. 

There  are  people  who  wear  cheap  hose  as  long 
as  possible  before  mending,  and  then  throw 
them  away.  Any  thoughtful  person  can  see  the 
extravagance  of  this  practice  from  every  point 
of  view.  Buying  good  stockings  is  economy  of 
time,  when  repairs  are  considered,  and  of 
money,  because  of  the  greater  length  of  life. 

There  are  two  types  of  hosiery,  the  seamless, 
and  the  full-fashioned.  The  seamless,  as  the 
name  implies,  is  made  without  a  seam,  and  the 
full-fashioned  has  a  seam  at  the  back  and  on 
the  sole  or  sides  of  the  foot.  Most  of  the  seam- 
less hose  are  knitted  in  one  circular  piece, 


THE  ECONOMICS  OF  CLOTHING  171 

leaving  an  opening  at  the  toe  to  be  looped  to- 
gether. The  leg,  heel,  and  toe  are  then  shaped 
by  steaming  and  then  drying  on  boards  of  the 
proper  form.  There  are  exceptions  to  this  gen- 
eral rule,  as  one  manufacturer  controls  patented 
machines  whereby  the  knitting  and  shaping  are 
accomplished  in  one  process.  The  advantage  of 
this  type  is  in  the  lack  of  seam  which  may  be 
uncomfortable;  the  disadvantage  is  that  they 
lose  their  shape  in  time.  The  full-fashioned 
stocking  is  knitted  on  machines  with  the  needles 
arranged  in  straight  lines  wrhich  automatically 
drop  the  requisite  number  of  stiches  at  various 
points  so  that  when  sewed  together  it  will  con- 
form to  the  natural  shape  of  the  foot.  This 
type  of  hose  fits  the  ankle  snugly,  and  for  that 
reason  is  preferred  by  many  critical  women. 
The  discomfort  of  having  the  seam  on  the  sole 
of  the  foot  has  been  obviated  in  some  cases  by 
placing  the  seams  on  the  sides. 

Cotton  hosiery  varies  in  price  and  durability 
according  to  the  quality  of  fiber  used.  The  long 
stapled  varieties  produce  the  best  and  strong- 
est hose,  and  it  is  economy  to  pay  the  extra 
price  for  this  grade.  A  lisle  stocking  is  one 
manufactured  from  lisle  thread,  which  is  made 


172         THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

out  of  combed  Egyptian  cotton  tightly  twisted 
and  run  through  a  gas  flame  to  remove  the  lint 
always  seen  on  other  yarns  made  from  cotton. 
This  singeing  does  not  injure  the  yarn,  but  gives 
the  stocking  a  firm,  wiry  feeling.  A  silky  ap- 
pearance is  given  to  either  the  cotton  or  lisle 
thread  by  the  process  of  mercerization.  Mer- 
cerization  increases  the  strength  of  the  fiber 
and  also  its  affinity  for  dyestuffs.  The  better 
grades  of  cotton  are  apt  to  be  used  when  the 
stocking  is  to  be  mercerized,  and  so  for  these 
reasons  mercerized  hose  usually  wear  better 
and  hold  the  dye  better,  than  ordinary  cotton. 
Silk  hosiery  may  be  made  from  pure,  regled  silk 
or  from  spun  silk.  Spun  silk  is  less  expensive 
than  the  reeled,  but  it  is  not  durable.  Good 
silk  stockings  are  not  cheap  and  it  is  necessary 
to  pay  at  least  one  dollar  for  durable  reeled 
silk  hose.  The  life  of  silk  hose  may  be  appre- 
ciably lengthened  by  rinsing  them  innvarm  or 
cold  water  each  night  after  they  have  been  worn 
during  the  day.  This  may  be  done  easily  if  run- 
ning water  is  available,  and  will  be  found  worth 
while. 

The  selection  of  color  is  important,  not  only 
from  the  artistic  point  of  view,  but  also  when 


THE  ECONOMICS  OF  CLOTHING  173 

the  money  side  is  being  considered.  The  woman 
who  is  spending  only  a  small  amount  on  her 
clothes  cannot  afford  to  buy  vivid,  striking,  or 
queer  colors  which  do  not  harmonize  with  other 
things  and  are  so  conspicuous  that,  once  seen, 
they  are  remembered.  Unless  one's  circum- 
stances are  such  that  a  suit  or  a  dress  may  be 
discarded  after  wearing  a  few  times,  novelties 
in  color  and  style  should  be  avoided.  The 
woman  with  a  small  clothing  allowance  should 
adopt  a  color  scheme  limited  to  those  colors  that 
are  becoming  and  that  harmonize.  Use  a  staple 
color,  as  navy  blue,  soft  brown,  or  green  as 
a  foundation,  with  gloves,  hats,  neckwear,  and 
other  accessories  in  harmony.  The  economy 
of  this  is  evident,  as  fewer  garments  will  serve 
all  occasions.  Navy  blue  is  the  safest  color 
to  choose,  as  it  is  becoming  to  almost  everyone 
and  can  be  purchased  in  all  standard  materials. 
The  woman  with  brown  eyes  or  red  hair  will 
find  brown,  green,  or  black  most  becoming,  and, 
therefore,  most  suitable.  White  material  is 
usually  most  economical  for  summer  wear  be- 
cause it  may  be  laundered  more  frequently  and 
easily  than  colored  materials.  The  design  of  a 
white  garment  is  usually  less  conspicuous  than 


174         THE  STUDY  OF  FABEICS 

any  color  and  so  may  be  worn  for  a  longer  time. 
The  soft  ratines  and  crepes,  requiring  little  if 
any  ironing,  have  helped  to  solve  the  laundry 
problem  and  thereby  removed  the  objections  to 
wearing  white. 

The  problem  of  economy  in  hats  is  not  so 
easily  solved  as  some  others.  Good  millinery 
materials  are  not  cheap,  but  the  artistic  skill  of 
the  milliner  is  far  more  expensive.  Therefore, 
if  a  woman  can  make  or  trim  her  own  hats  she 
will  be  able  to  effect  a  great  saving.  This  re- 
quires skill  not  possessed  by  the  average  girl 
or  woman.  It  may  be  acquired  to  some  extent, 
but  requires  time.  Exchange  of  work  may  be 
more  practical  in  some  cases.  A  woman  with 
this  artistic  skill  might  be  very  glad  to  trim  a 
hat  in  exchange  for  some  sewing  or  mending. 
There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether 
it  is  better  to  get  a  more  expensive  hat  and 
wear  it  two  seasons  or  to  get  a  cheap  one  every 
season.  If  the  style  is  extreme  and  not  likely 
to  be  good  a  second  season,  it  would  be  much 
wiser  to  choose  an  inexpensive  shape  with  per- 
haps more  expensive  trimmings  which  could  be 
utilized  again.  Heavy  satin  ribbon  is  a  durable 
material  for  trimming,  and  while  rather  expen- 


THE  ECONOMICS  OF  CLOTHING  175 

sive  to  begin  with,  it  will  stand  wear  and  tear 
better  than  most  trimmings.  Good  ostrich 
plumes  in  black  or  white  may  be  used  several 
seasons  if  given  good  care.  Artificial  flowers 
are  not  economical  usually.  Close  bunches  of 
small  flowers  or  buds  with  plenty  of  foliage 
stand  exposure  better  than  large,  loose  roses  or 
other  flowers.  Faded  flowers  may  be  recolored 
quite  easily.  Any  one  with  a  very  little  skill 
can  freshen  up  old  flowers  with  water  color 
paints.  A  simpler  method  requiring  no  partic- 
ular artistic  ability  is  as  follows :  Mix  oil  paints 
with  gasoline  or  benzine  until  the  desired  shade 
is  obtained,  then  immerse  flowers  in  this  mix- 
ture. They  must  be  kept  away  from  fire  of 
any  kind  until  perfectly  dry.  Cheap  felt  soon 
loses  its  shape  and  looks  badly,  while  a  good 
felt  hat  of  a  conservative  shape  will  look  well 
for  several  seasons.  Black  hats  are  generally 
most  economical,  as  they  go  with  everything 
and  are  most  easily  freshened  and  cleaned. 

What  Is  a  Bargain? — Is  there  anything  which 
so  delights  the  heart  of  a  woman  as  being  able 
to  take  advantage  of  a  bargain?  Everything 
placed  on  the  counters  where  a  bargain  sale  is 
advertised  is  not  necessarily  a  real  bargain. 


176         THE  STUDY  OP  FABEICS 

The  salesmen  have  discovered  that  many  women 
do  not  exercise  their  judgment  when  attending 
such  sales  and  have  learned  to  take  advantage 
of  this.  The  following  incident  illustrates  this 
fact.  A  clothing  store  in  Michigan  had  a  slight 
fire,  and  some  of  their  goods  were  mussed  and 
soiled  by  the  water  and  smoke.  To  get  rid  of 
these  damaged  goods  a  fire  sale  was  advertised. 
The  people  thronged  to  get  the  bargains  of- 
fered, and  continued  to  come  after  all  the  sale 
goods  had  been  sold.  The  merchant  did  not 
like  to  disappoint  the  crowds,  so  had  the  clerks 
take  new,  fresh  materials  and  wipe  the  floor 
with  them  to  make  them  look  like  the  others, 
and  then  for  their  trouble  the  price  was  raised 
a  ^ew  cents.  The  crowd  eagerly  snapped  up 
"the  bargains "  and  went  away  happy.  When 
attending  a  sale  of  any  kind,  one  should  look 
for  legitimate  reasons  for  the  reduced  price. 
Broken  lots  and  odd  sizes  must  be  gotten  rid 
of,  even  at  a  sacrifice.  Soiled  garments  do  not 
sell  readily  at  the  regular  price,  and  the  mer- 
chant is  glad  to  make  a  reduction  to  get  rid 
of  such  garments.  In  such  a  case,  if  the  gar- 
ment be  one  which  can  be  laundered  and  the 
reduction  more  than  covers  the  cost  of  launder- 


THE  ECONOMICS  OF  CLOTHING  177 

ing,  this  may  be  termed  a  legitimate  bargain. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  mill  ends,  remnants, 
samples,  and  novelties  such  as  belts,  bags,  and 
collars.  Seasonal  sales  also  furnish  an  oppor- 
tunity for  economical  purchases.  For  example, 
the  January  white  goods  sales  have  become  an 
established  custom  in  many  stores.  Real  bar- 
gains may  be  found  at  such  times. 

Eubber  goods  and  silks,  which  deteriorate 
rapidly,  are  frequently  put  on  sale  in  order  to 
dispose  of  them  quickly.  Sale  silks  are  seldom 
economical,  and  unless  you  are  allowed  to  test 
a  sample  and  find  the  silk  unweighted,  beware. 
A  weighted  silk  which  has  been  in  stock  for 
some  time  will  seldom  wear  long  enough  to 
pay  for  making  up.  A  young  woman  bought 
such  a  silk  and  after  keeping  it  a  few  months 
took  it  to  the  dressmaker.  The  waist  was  cut 
out  but  never  basted  together,  because  when 
the  pleats  were  laid  it  split  in  the  creases.  Occa- 
sionally there  will  be  found  in  the  lot  an  un- 
weighted silk  which  is  really  a  bargain.  An- 
other danger  encountered  in  bargain  sales  is 
the  temptation  to  buy  things  that  are  not  needed 
at  the  time,  and  with  no  prospect  of  an  early 
future  need.  A  story  is  told  of  a  woman  who 


178         THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

was  fascinated  by  sales  of  all  kinds.  She  fre- 
quently brought  home  purchases  which  greatly 
amused  the  family.  One  day,  after  attending 
a  secondhand  sale,  she  returned  with  a  door- 
plate  on  which  was  engraved  the  name  Thomp- 
son. When  asked  what  use  she  expected  to 
make  of  a  doorplate  with  Thompson  on  it,  she 
replied  that  she  thought  one  of  her  daughters 
might  marry  a  Mr.  Thompson  and  then  she 
could  give  it  to  them.  Perhaps  this  seems  al- 
most unbelievable,  and  yet  women  are  con- 
stantly buying  things  for  which  they  have  as 
little  need.  Benjamin  Franklin  said,  "Buy  what 
thou  hasn't  need  of,  and  ere  long  thou  shalt 
sell  thy  necessaries.'7  This  does  not  refer  to 
buying  staples  in  quantities.  It  is  wise  to  put 
in  a  supply  of  .thread,  needles,  pins,  tapes,  bias 
bindings,  and  such  things,  that  are  frequently 
needed.  This  will  save  the  inconvenience  and 
loss  of  time  caused  by  numerous  shopping  trips 
when  these  things  happen  to  be  needed.  Staple 
cotton  materials,  hosiery,  undergarments,  and 
such  other  materials  and  garments  not  largely 
affected  by  fashion  may  be  purchased  in  quan- 
tities out  of  season  when  the  price  has  been  re- 
duced. Suits,  coats,  etc.  may  be  purchased  late 


THE  ECONOMICS  OF  CLOTHING  179 

in  the  season  at  about  half  price.  If  one  is  will- 
ing to  wear  plain  tailored  styles,  which  do  not 
change  so  radically  from  season  to  season,  in- 
stead of  the  extremes,  fads,  and  novelties,  it  is 
possible  to  dress  well  on  a  smaller  amount  of 
money.  A  person  of  small  means  should  not  at- 
tempt to  keep  up  with  all  the  fads,  which  soon 
lose  their  attractiveness  and,  therefore,  necessi- 
tate frequent  changes,  if  one  is  to  appear  well 
dressed. 

Buying  staples  in  large  quantities  and  buying 
out  of  season  necessitate  an  income  beyond  the 
amount  needed  from  day  to  day.  Unfortunately 
those  who  need  most  to  economize  are  unable  to 
take  advantage  of  such  method  of  economy. 

There  are  many  who,  either  because  the  in- 
come is  small  or  because  of  a  lack  of  planning, 
buy  on  the  installment  plan.  An  investigation 
made  in  New  York  city  showed  that  from  20% 
to  100%  more  than  regular  price  was  paid  when 
the  installment  plan  was  used.  It  is  unfortu- 
nate that  those  who  need  to  economize  most, 
frequently  shop  in  this  way. 

Cash  and  Charge  Systems. — There  are  advan- 
tages and  disadvantages  in  both  the  cash  and 
the  charge  systems.  Each  individual  must  de- 


180         THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

cide  which  seems  wisest  and  most  convenient 
in  her  particular  case.  Having  an  account  gives 
standing  in  a  store  and  may  insure  more  courte- 
ous and  careful  treatment.  It  also  saves  time 
in  shopping  and  gives  an  itemized  account  at 
the  end  of  the  month.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has 
a  tendency  to  make  one  more  extravagant  and 
less  careful  in  buying.  In  that  case  the  cash 
system  is  far  better  even  with  its  disadvan- 
tages. Paying  cash  is  a  good  habit  to  acquire. 
For  the  woman  of  ample  means  there  is  pro- 
tection in  shopping  in  the  high  grade  store. 
The  sales  people  are  usually  more  intelligent, 
only  better  grades  of  materials  are  carried,  and 
the  firms  are  more  nearly  reliable,  since  the 
merchants  wish  to  keep  up  their  reputation, 
and  will  "make  good"  any  purchase  which  is 
not  as  represented.  Such  stores  have  sales  at 
stated  times  and  seasons  where  "legitimate  bar- 
gains ' '  may  be  found.  Frequently  stores  of  this 
type  have  a  basement  where  cheaper  materials 
are  sold,  and  sometimes  the  same  articles  may 
be  found  in  the  basement  at  a  considerably 
lower  price.  For  example,  an  umbrella  which 
cost  $5  if  purchased  upstairs  was  only  $3.48  in 
the  basement.  The  same  was  found  true  in 


THE  ECONOMICS  OF  CLOTHING  181 

buying  raincoats.  A  saving  of  from  $2  to  $3 
was  possible  by  making  the  purchase  in  the 
basement.  The  reason  for  this  is  quite  evident 
when  the  difference  in  the  furnishings,  type  of 
clerk,  rent,,  operating  expenses,  etc.  are  con- 
sidered. If  a  department  is  made  attractive 
with  velvet  carpets  and  other  expensive  fur- 
nishings, and  if  there  are  attractive,  well 
dressed  clerks  to  wait  upon  us,  we  should  keep 
in  mind  the  fact  that  all  this  is  paid  for  by  in- 
creased prices  of  articles  sold  under  such  con- 
ditions. 

Everything  in  cheap  stores  is  not  inferior  in 
quality,  but  unless  one  is  a  good  judge  it  is 
often  difficult  to  distinguish  the  good  from  the 
poor.  Deceptive  methods  of  advertising  and 
selling  are  used  which  further  confuse  the  in- 
experienced shopper.  One  who  is  capable  of 
judging  materials  may  get  satisfactory  fabrics 
at  a  lower  price  than  in  the  high  grade  store. 
The  less  aristocratic  store  can  sell  cheaper  be- 
cause rent  and  operating  expenses  are  lower, 
and  they  do  not  carry  the  high  priced  novelties 
which  entail  great  losses. 

A  knowledge  of  sewing  is  an  economical  as- 
set to  the  woman  who  has  time  which  may  be 


182         THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

spent  in  that  way.  The  woman  who  under- 
stands the  principles  of  garment  making  so  that 
she  may  work  to  advantage  can  save  many  dol- 
lars in  the  course  of  a  year.  Some  dressmakers 
are  not  only  willing  but  glad  to  design,  cut,  and 
fit,  and  leave  the  finishing  to  the  woman  her- 
self. A  high-priced  dressmaker  can  accomplish 
a  good  deal  in  a  few  days  by  that  method  at  a 
considerable  saving  to  the  woman  employing 
her. 

Undergarments,  simple  waists,  and  dresses 
can  be  made  at  home  easily,  and  are  often  more 
satisfactory  than  the  ready-made  garments,  be- 
cause better  grades  of  materials  and  trimmings 
will  be  used  and  the  style  and  fit  may  be  better. 

Care  of  Clothing. — Proper  care  of  cl°fhing 
plays  an  important  part  in  the  clothes  problem 
if  one  wishes  to  appear  well  dressed  on  a  small 
or  even  reasonable  amount  of  money.  The  ap- 
pearance of  the  most  beautiful  garment  is 
greatly  impaired  if  mussed,  spotted,  or  minus 
a  hook,  eye,  or  button.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
simple  dress  of  inexpensive  material,  if  in  good 
repair  and  correctly  put  on,  gives  one  a  well 
dressed  appearance.  The  careful  brushing  of 
clothes  which  have  been  worn  on  the  street  is 


THE  ECONOMICS  OP  CLOTHING  183 

a  point  frequently  neglected,  but  is  one  which 
adds  much  to  the  appearance  and  life  of  the 
garment.  Knowing  the  best  methods  of  mend- 
ing various  materials  is  a  great  advantage. 
Woolen  materials  can  often  be  darned  with 
threads  of  the  material,  split  silk,  or  hair  so 
that  the  garment  may  again  be  presentable. 
Muslin  undergarments,  if  neatly  repaired,  may 
be  kept  in  a  wearable  condition  for  a  much 
longer  time.  The  ribbed  top  hose  may  be 
stretched  and  then  stitched  on  the  machine  just 
where  the  ribbed  part  is  joined  to  the  lower  part. 
This  will  prevent  the  runners,  caused  by  the  fas- 
tening of  garters,  from  being  continued  below 
the  ribbed  portion.  When  purchased,  knitted 
underwear  may  be  reinforced  at  the  places  re- 
ceiving most  strain  and  wear.  The  additional 
strength  at  these  places  will  help  to  prevent  the 
appearance  of  holes.  Shoes  which  are  "run 
down"  at  the  heels  give  the  wearer  an  untidy 
appearance.  More  than  that,  this  lack  of  proper 
balance  spoils  the  shape  of  the  entire  shoe, 
and  makes  it  wear  out  sooner.  It  does  not  cost 
much  to  have  the  heels  straightened  on  a  pair 
of  shoes,  and  money  spent  in  this  way  is  often 
an  economical  expenditure.  It  costs  but  little 


184         THE  STUDY  OF  FABEICS 

more  to  have  rubber  heels  put  on  at  this  time, 
and  the  luxury  of  rubber  heels  means  added 
comfort  in  walking.  Many  women  say  that  to  be 
neat  in  appearance  is  the  greatest  task  of  their 
lives,  and  it  would  seem  that  the  time  expended 
in  keeping  clothes  in  order  and  putting  them  on 
correctly  is  greater  than  all  other  essentials. 
Yet  all  these  precautions  are  well  worth  the  ef- 
fort. 

Clothing  Budgets. — A  consideration  of  the 
proportion  of  the  income  which  should  be  spent 
for  clothing,  and  how  that  amount  may  be 
most  wisely  used,  is  of  value.  Such  a  study 
gives  us  the  benefit  of  the  experience  of  others 
and  makes  us  think  about  the  garments  which 
will  be  best  suited  to  our  needs.  This  planning 
will  naturally  reduce  expenditures,  as  any  one 
knows  that  haphazard  buying  is  extravagant. 
For  the  person  on  a  salary  there  is  quite  an  ad- 
vantage in  planning  the  purchases  from  month 
to  month  and  year  to  year.  In  this  way  it  is 
possible  to  avoid  having  an  undue  proportion  of 
purchases  come  in  one  month  or  one  year.  If 
this  is  not  considered,  a  suit,  waist,  hat,  shoes, 
and  gloves  may  all  be  needed  at  the  same  time 
without  sufficient  money  to  pay  for  them.  The 


THE  ECONOMICS  OF  CLOTHING  185 

same  is  true  of  garments  for  the  year.  Coats, 
suits,  furs,  etc.  should  be  distributed  so  that 
all  are  not  purchased  from  one  year's  salary. 

Studies  of  thousands  of  family  and  personal 
clothing  budgets  show  that  the  amount  spent 
for  clothing  varies  from  12  to  17  per  cent  of 
the  money  received.  Circumstances  vary  the 
•amount  which  must  be  spent.  For  example,  a 
teacher  or  a  woman  in  business,  who  must  al- 
ways be  well  dressed,  must  spend  more  money 
for  clothing  than  the  woman  in  the  home  who  is 
most  neatly  and  properly  attired  for  at  least 
part  of  the  day  in  a  simple  cotton  house  dress. 
The  climate  also  affects  the  kind  and  amount 
of  clothing  needed.  There  is  a  value  in  keeping 
one's  clothing  account  from  year  to  year,  since 
it  shows  what  purchases  have  been  made,  and 
a  study  of  it  in  comparison  with  other  clothing 
budgets  may  show  how  better  results  could  be 
obtained  for  the  same  or  a  smaller  expenditure. 
A  typical  family  budget  and  the  budget  for  a 
business  woman  are  given  as  illustrations. 

Family  Budget. — The  following  is  an  actual 
account  of  a  family  living  in  Madison,  Wis.  The 
father  is  a  stone  hauler  and  gets  $4.50  a  day — 


186         THE  STUDY  OP  FABRICS 

$108  a  month,  or  $1,296  a  year.  There  are  three 
children:  a  girl  of  sixteen,  a  boy  of  ten,  and  a 
girl  five  years  old.  The  mother  does  most  of 
the  sewing  for  the  children  and  herself.  The 
older  girl  works  at  the  telephone  office  and  gets 
$5  a  week,  some  of  which  she  uses  as  spending 
money  and  to  help  buy  some  of  her  clothes. 
She  saves  $10  a  month.  The  family  owns  the 
small  cottage  in  which  it  lives.  The  amount 
spent  for  clothing  is  about  14%  of  the  total  in- 
come of  the  father,  or  $174.30  a  year.  This  is 
not  counting  the  extra  amount  that  the  older 
girl  spends  out  of  her  own  money.  She  spends 
for  clothing  about  $40  a  year  of  the  money  she 
earns. 

THE  FATHER'S  BUDGET 

Cost 
Articles  Purchase  Service        a  Year 

1  suit  clothes,  $16 ready-made 2  years  $8 .00 

1  suit  clothes,  $12 ready-made 2  years  6 .00 

2  pairs  overalls ready-made 1  year  1 .00 

1  hat 1  year  1 .50 

1  cap 1  year  1 .00 

Gloves  and  mittens 1  year  1 .50 

1  overcoat,  $10 bought  at  sale 2  years  5 .00 

1  sweater,  $5 2  years  2 .50 

2  winter  shirts 1  year  1 .50 

3  summer  shirts 1  year  1.25 

2  winter  undershirts . . .     bought  at  sale 2  years  1 .00 

2  summer  undershirts. .     bought  at  sale 1  year  .50 

Carried  forward  $30.75 


THE  ECONOMICS  OF  CLOTHING  187 

Cost 

Articles                                  Purchase                     Service  a  Year 

Brought  forward  $30.75 
2  pairs      fleece      lined 

drawers 1  year 

2  pairs  summer  drawers     1  year 

Handkerchiefs 1  year 

3  collars 1  year 

4  ties 1  year 

3  pairs  shoes .' .     1  year 

6  pairs  hose 1  year 

Total $44.00 

THE  MOTHER'S  BUDGET 

Coat 

Articles                                    Purchase                      Service  a  Year 

2  hats,  $6 trimmed  at  home. . .     1  year  $6 .00 

1  coat,  $10 bought  at  sale 2  years  5 .00 

1  spring  suit,  $15 bought  out  of  season    2  years  7 . 50 

1  wool  dress,  $4 made  at  home 2  years  2 . 00 

2  wash  dresses made  at  home 2  years  4 .00 

3  white  waists made  at  home 2  years  1 . 50 

2  white  petticoats made  at  home 2  years  1 .00 

1  black  petticoat bought  at  sale 1  year  .75 

3  aprons made  at  home 1  year  .50 

year  1.00 

year  5.00 

year  1.50 

year  .30 

2  winter  union  suits year  1 . 20 

2  summer  union  suits.  .     bought  at  sale year  .60 

2  gowns made  at  home 1  year  1 .00 

4  corset  covers 1  year  1 .00 

2  corsets 1  year  2 .00 

2  pairs  drawers made  at  home 1  year  .30 

Sundries 1  year  1 .00 


1  pair  gloves 

3  pairs  shoes odd  size 

6  pairs  hose 

6  handkerchiefs bought  at  sale. 


Total $43.15 


188         THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 
FOR  BOY  OF  TEN 

Cost 

Articles                                    Purchase  Service  a  Year 

2  caps,  $1 1  year  $1 .00 

1  suit,  $8 bought  at  discount. .  2  years  4 .00 

1  suit,  $5 bought  at  discount..  2  years  2 .50 

3  waists,  $1 made  at  home 1  year  1 .00 

1  sweater,  $5 2  years  2 . 50 

8  pairs  hose,  $2 1  year  2 .00 

3  pairs  shoes,  $9 1  year  9 . 00 

2  winter  union  suits,  $1     bought  at  sale 1  year  1 .00 

2  summer  union  suits, 

$ .  50 bought  at  sale 1  year  .  50 

1  pair  mittens,  $ .  50 1  year  .50 

1  pair  trousers,  $1 bought  at  discount..  1  year  1 .00 


Total $25.00 

FOR  GIRL  OF  FIVE 

Cost 

Articles                                    Purchase  Service  a  Year 

1  bonnet 1  year  $1 .00 

1  hat 1  year  .75 

1  coat made  over  fromgrown 

person's  dress. ...  2  years  .50 

2  wool  dresses made  over  from  grown 

person's  dresses.. .  1  year  .50 

4  wash  dresses made  at  home 1  year  2 . 00 

1  pair  mittens ."     1  year  .25 

3  white  aprons made  at  home 1  year  .75 

3  white  petticoats. ....     made  at  home 1  year  .50 

2  pairs  shoes bought  at  sale 1  year  1.50 

2  pairs  slippers bought  at  sale 1  year  1 .50 

2  wool  union  suits 1  year  1 .00 

2  summer  union  suits. . .     bought  at  sale 1  year  .  30 

3  pah-s  drawers made  at  home 1  year  .45 

2underwaists 1  year  .25 

Carried  forward  $11.25 


THE  ECONOMICS  OF  CLOTHING  189 

Articles  Purchase 


Cost 
Service        a  Year 


Brought  forward  $11.25 

8  pairs  stockings 1  year  1 .20 

Handkerchiefs 1  year  .20 

2  gowns 1  year  .50 


Total..  ..$13.15 


FOR  GIRL  OF  SIXTEEN 


Cost 
Articles  Purchase  Service        a  Year 


2  hats  

trimmed  at  home.  .  . 
bought  at  discount..     ' 

i 

L  year 
2  years 
I  years 
year 
year 
year 
year 
year 
year 
year 
year 
I  year 
L  year 
year 
ye  r 
yeir 
yeir 
year 
year 
year 
year 
I  years 

$6.00 
7.50 
3.00 
4.00 
6.00 
10.00 
3.00 
2.00 
15.00 
.75 
2.00 
1.00 
1.50 
3.00 
1.00 
.90 
2.50 
1.20 
2.00 
12.00 
1.50 
10.00 

.$95.85 

1  coat,  $15 

1  sweater  $6 

1  wool  skirt  

made  at  home  
made  at  home 

1  winter  dress 

4  wash  dresses  
4  waists 

made  at  home.  ..... 
made  at  home  .  .  . 

2  white  petticoats  
1  silk  dress,  $15  
1  black  petticoat 

made  at  home  
made  at  home  

2  winter  union  suits  .  .  . 
2  summer  union  suits 

6  corset  covers 

made  at  home 

3  corsets  

2  gowns 

made  at  home  
made  at  home 

3  pairs  drawers 

10  pairs  hose  

12  handkerchiefs 

Gloves  

4  pairs  shoes      .    . 

Ribbons,  etc  

Furs,  $20    

« 

Total.  . 

(Father  pays  only  $50  of  this  amount) 


190         THE  STUDY  OF  FABRICS 

The  family  has  relatives  from  whom  it  often 
receives  clothing  that  can  be  made  over. 

WASHING 

The  family  washing,  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  shirts  and  collars,  is  done  by  the  mother. 

Soap,  bluing,  starch,  etc $10  a  year 

Laundry   2  a  year 


Total   $12  a  year 

CLOTHING  BUDGET  FOB  A  BUSINESS  GIRL 

(Living  at  home  and  assisted  by  the  family  in 
making  garments  and  repairs) 

The  salary  is  about  $15  a  week,  and  the  need 
is  for  good,  everyday  garments.  The  suits  are 
made  by  a  dressmaker  outside  of  the  home ;  the 
coat  is  ready-made ;  and  other  clothing  is  made 
at  home  as  far  as  possible.  Advantage  is  taken 
of  past-season  sales.  The  long,  light-weight 
coat  is  serviceable  all  the  year.  The  coat  of  the 
three  piece  winter  suit  serves  when  a  short  coat 
is  desired.  The  cost  is,  on  an  average,  $100  an- 
nually. This  plan  of  budget  making  considers 
the  possible  service  of  garments  as  continuing 
from  year  to  year. 


THE  ECONOMICS  OF  CLOTHING  191 


BUDGET  FOR  BUSINESS  GIRL'S  CLOTHING  FOR 
THREE  YEARS 


Num- 
ber 

Total 
Cost 

Years 
of 
Wear 

Average 
Yearly 
Cost 
(Omitting 
Small 
Fractions) 

Suit  —  3  piece,  for  winter: 
Coat,  skirt,  waist.    Suit- 
ing material,   serge  —  16 
yds.  36  in.  at  $1.25-$20 
(12yds.  50  in.  at  $1.50) 
Lining  —  Sateen,  4  yds.  36 
in.  at  $  50 

$20.00 
2  00 

1 

Interlinings,     trimmings, 
etc  

6  00 

Dressmaker 

20  00 

$48  00 

3 

$16  00 

Coats  —  Covert  cloth: 
Long,        light-weight, 
ready-made 

1 

20  00 

3 

6  66 

Sweater 

1 

3  50 

3 

1  17 

Dresses  —  summer     (each 
summer  a  new  one.  This 
lasts  over  the  next  sum- 
mer): 
Ginghams     (in     washable 
colors)  10  yds.  30  in.  at 
$  25 

2  50 

1 

Dressmaker  

5  00 

7  50 

1 

7  50 

Batiste,  etc.: 
10  yds.  36  in.  at  $.25...  . 
Dressmaker 

2.50 

7  00 

1 

9  50 

0 

4  7^ 

Carried  forward  

$88.50 

$36.08 

From  "Textiles"  by  Woolman  and  McGowan. 


192 


THE  STUDY  OF  FABEICS 


Num- 
ber 

Total 
Cost 

Years 
of 
Wear 

Average 
Yearly 
Cost 
(Omitting 
Small 
Fractions) 

Brought  forward.  .... 
Separate  waists  (made  at 
home)         

$88.50 

$36.08 

Cotton 

3 

3yds.  36in.at$.15  
Trimming  (average  for 
3) 

.45 
15 

1  80 

1 

1  80 

Scotch  flannel 

1 

3  yds.  at  $.35  

1  05 

1  05 

1 

1  05 

Silk: 
5  yds.  at  $.75  

3  75 

2 

7.50 

3 

2.50 

Dress  skirts  (made  at  home) 
Wool  (Panama)      .... 

1 

5  yds  36  in  at  $1 

5  00 

5  00 

2 

2  50 

Cotton      

1 

5yds.  (30-36  in.)  at  $.15 
Petticoats: 
Sateen,  5yds.  at  $.35..  . 
Colored  cotton,  5  yds.  at 
$  15      

.75 
1.75 
75 

1 
1 

.75 
1.75 

.75 

1 
2 
1 

.75 

.88 
.75 

White  cotton  4  yds.  at 
$  15    

.60 

2 

3.20 

3 

1.10 

Embroidery  or  Lace.  .  .  . 
Corset  covers: 
1M  yds.  at  $.15  

1.00 
.20 

4 

Lace  or  embroidery  .... 

.30 

2.00 

1 

2.00 

Nightdresses: 
4yds.  at  $.15  
Trimming 

.60 
40 

3 

3.00 

2 

1.50 

Carried  forward 

$115.30 

$50.91 

THE  ECONOMICS  OF  CLOTHING  193 


Num- 
ber 

Total 
Cost 

Years 
of 
Wear 

Average 
Yearly 
Cost 
(Omitting 
Small 
Fractions) 

Brought  forward 

$115.30 

$50.91 

Drawers: 
1/4  yds.  at  $  15 

28 

2 

Trimming  (average)  .  .  . 

.30 

1.16 

1 

1.16 

Hats: 
Winter 

1 

8  00 

1 

8.00 

Summer   

1 

5.00 

1 

5.00 

Gloves  : 
Kid           .             

1.25 

2 

2.50 

1 

2.50 

Silk 

50 

2 

1  00 

1 

1.00 

Chamoisette  
Corsets  

.50 

2 
1  or  2 

1.00 
2.00 

1 
1 

1.00 
2.00 

Hosiery,  9  pr.  at  3  for  $1  .  . 
Shoes,  3  pr.  at  $4  each  .... 
(or  4  pr.  at  $3  average) 
Rubbers,  2  pr.  at  $  .  75  each 
Underwear: 
Cdtton  shirts,  $.25  
Combinations,  $1  (heavy) 

9 
3 

2 

4 
3 

3.00 
12.00 

1.50 

1.00 
3.00 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

3.00 
12.00 

1.50 

1.00 
1.50 

Sum  left  for  extras  

$156.46 

$90.57 
9.43 

Total 

$100.00 

INDEX 


Absorbent  cotton,  14 
Accessories,  Soap,  112 
Acetic  acid,  15 
Acid,  15 

action  on  linen,  98 

dyes,  21 

effect  on  animal  fibers, 
107 

effect   on  vegetable  fi- 
bers, 106 

hydrochloric,  86 
Acid  test,  Nitric,  61 

tannic,  78 

Acidulated  water,  58 
Action  of  acids,  15,  98 

of  alkalies,  16,  98 
Adulterated  silk,  86 
Agents,  Bleaching,  17 
Alcohol,  120 
Alkalies,  16 

action  on  linens,  98 

effect  on  animal  fibers, 
107 

effect   on   vegetable  fi- 
bers, 107 

Alkali  test,  58,  60 
Alum,  117 


Ammonia,  17 
Aniline  dyes,  23 

bluing,  114 
Animal  fibers,   Effect  of 

acids  on,  107 
effect    of    alkalies    on, 

107 
Artificial  bleaching  stuffs, 

17 

silk,  86 
Art  linen,  98 

Baling  cotton,  9 
Bargain,  What  is  a,  175 
Basic  dyes,  21 
Bast  fiber,  93 
Batiste,  25 
Batten,  Cotton,  11 
Battening,  5 
Beams,  6 
Bed  linen,  100 
Bengaline,  73 
Blanket  wools,  33 
Bleach,  113 
Bleaching  agents,  17,  126 

linen,  95 

sulphur  dioxide,  128 


195 


196 


INDEX 


Block  printing,  23 
Blood  stains,  121 
Bluing,  113 

aniline,  114 

Indigo,  114 

Prussian,  114 

test    for    presence    of 
iron,  114 

ultramarine,  115 
Boiling   in   lye   solution, 
Materials  before  and 
after,  57,  59,  60 
Bombyx  mori,  66 
Borax,  109 
Bottle  for  pressing  seams, 

119 

Braking  flax,  93 
Broadcloth,  32,  39 
Brocaded  satin,  73 
Budget,  Clothing,  184 

business  girl,  190 

family,  185 

Burning  to  detect  cotton, 
56 

weighting  in  silk,  82 
Butcher's  linen,  99 

Calendering  cloth,  12,  20 
Calico,  24 
Cambric,  25 
Carbona,  120 
Carbonated  or  caustic  al- 
kalies, 16 


Carbon  tetraehloride,  120 

Carding,  11,  36,  37 

Care  of  clothing,  148,  182 

Carpet  wools,  33 

Cash  and  charge  systems, 
179 

Cashmere,  31 

Cellulose,  15 

Characteristics  of  cotton, 

Physical,  12 
of  silk  fiber,  76 

Chardonnet  silk,  87,  88 

Charge  systems,  179 

Chemical     characteristics 

of  silk  fiber,  76,  78 
nature  of  cotton,  14 
test     for     cotton     and 
wool,  56 

Chemicals,   Effect  of,   on 
fiber,  14 

Cheviots,  62 

Chiffon,  73 

China  silk,  73 

Chloride  of  lime,  17 

Chloroform,  120 

Citrates,  15 

Cleaning  cotton,  11 
white  kid  gloves,  127 
white   shoes,   127 

Clothes,  Hanging,  130 
soiled,  150 

Clothing      budget,     184, 
190 


INDEX 


197 


Clothing,    care    of,    148, 

182 

economics  of,  163 
function  of,  142 
hygiene  of,   141 
keeping  clean,  148 
objects  of,  144 
Cocoa  stains,  122 
Coffee  stains,  122 
Collars,  158 
Collodion  silk,  89 
Colors,  To  set,  116 
selection  of,  172 
Combing,  11,  37 
Common  cotton  materials, 

24 

linen  fabrics,  98 
silk  materials,  73 
Compared      with      price, 
Wearing       qualities, 
27 
Comparison    of    different 

varieties  of  wool,  31 
Conduction   of  heat  and 
electricity    by    wool, 
34 

Corduroy,  25 
Corsets,  149,  150 
Cortex  of  wool,  32 
Cotton,  1,  6 
bleaching,  17 
burning  to  detect,  56 
chemical  nature  of,  14 


Cotton, 

cleaning,  11 
distinguishing  between 

linen  and,  102 
fibers,  Types  of,  13 
for  undergarments,  146 
hygroscopicity  of,  146 
materials,  Common,  24 
mercerized,  18,  21 

Crash,  98 

Cream  stains,  122 

Crepe  de  Chine,  74 

Damask,  98 
French,  100 
German,  99 
Difference    between    hair 

and  wool,  32 
Different  varieties  of  wool 

compared,  31 
Dimity,  25 
Discharge       process      of 

printing,  24 
Distinguishing      between 

cotton  and  linen,  102 
Dotted  Swiss,  29 
Drawing  cotton,  11 

wool,  38 
Dressing       economically, 

166 

Dressing  in  cotton,  27 
Drying  flax,  93 
woolens,  131 


198 


INDEX 


Dyeing,    12,    21,    35,    38, 

70 
Dyes,    response   of   linen 

to,  98 
test  for  fastness,  64 

Economical  dressing,  166 
Economics     of     clothing, 

163 
Effect  of,  acids  on  animal 

fibers,  107 

acids    on    vegetable  fi- 
bers, 106 
acids  on  wool,  34 
alkalies   on   animal   fi- 
bers, 107 
alkalies    on    vegetable 

fibers,  107 
alkalies  on  wool,  34 
chemicals     on     cotton 

fiber,  15 
Eiderdowns,  61 
Elasticity  of  wool,  34 
Electric  iron,  138 
Electricity,  linen  conduc- 
tor of,  97 

wool  conductor  of,  34 
Epidermis  of  wool,  31 
Evolution  of  spinning,  1 

of  weaving,  1 
Experiment    on    mercer- 
ized cotton,  21 
on  wool,  56 


Fabrics,    Common    linen, 

98 

Fading,    Tests    for    fast- 
ness to,  64 
Family  budget,  185 

washing,  190 
Fashion,   Effect  on  wool 

supply,  42 

Fastness  to   dyes,   crock- 
ing,     and      fading, 
Tests  for,  64 
perspiration,  26 
sunlight,  25 
washing,  26 
Felting  property  of  wool, 

32 

Fermentation,  Cotton  lia- 
ble to,  14 
Fiber,  Bast,  93 

effect  of  acids  on  vege- 
table and  animal, 
106,  107 

effect    of    alkalies    on 
vegetable    and    ani- 
mal, 107 
effect  of  chemicals  on 

cotton,  15 
flax,  97 

physical   and   chemical 
characteristics  of  silk 
and  linen,  76,  96 
test  for  quality  of,  29 
types  of  cotton,  13 


INDEX 


199 


Fibroin,  68,  78 
Finishing  woolens,  39 
Firmness  of  weave,  52 
Flannels,  63 
Flax  fibers,  97 

culture,  92 

in  different  stages  of 
preparation  for 
weaving,  91 

spinning,  94 
Fleeces,  37 
Floss,  Silk,  70 
Foulard,  74 
French  damask,  100 
Fruit  stains,  122 
Functions     of     clothing, 
142 

Garments,  One-piece,  157 
ready-made,  167 
worn  at  night,  160 

Gasoline,  120 

German  damask,  99 

Gingham,  24 

Ginning  cotton,  9 

Glass  toweling,  99 

Gloves,    What    to    buy, 
169 

Glycerine,  122 

Gossypium,  6 

Grass  stains,  125 

Grease,  119 
wagon,  121 


Habutai,  74 
Hackling  flax,  93 
Hair    and    wool,    Differ- 
ence between,  32 
Half  ripe  cotton  fibers,  13 
Hand  cards,  36 
Handkerchief  linen,  99 

to  wash,  135 
Hanging  clothes,  130 
Hardness  of  water,  Tem- 
porary   and    perma- 
nent, 109 
Hard  soap,  111 

water,  108 
Hats,  159,  174 
Heat  conduction,  of  cot- 
ton, 14 

of  linen,  14,  97 

of  wool,  34 
Heddle,  6 

Homemade  soap,  111 
Household  linen,  99 
Huckaback,  99 
Hydrochloric  acid,  86 
Hygiene  of  clothing,  141 
Hygroscopicity  of  cotton, 
14,  146 

silk,  146 

wool,  33,  146 

Imported  silks,  73 
Indigo  blue,  114 
Ink  stains,  124 


200 


INDEX 


Insects,   Cotton  resistant 

to,  14 
Iodine  or  medicine  stain, 

125 

Irish  linen,  99 
Iron,  Electric,  138 

rust,  123 
Iron  in  bluing,  Tests  for, 

114 
Ironing,  130 

Javelle    water,    17,    126, 

128 
John  Brown  linen,  99 

Laces,  To  wash,  134 
Laundry,        Cooperative, 
139 

machinery,  135 

problems,  104 

soaps,  112 

Laws,  Pure  textile,  46,  82 
Leash,  6 
Leather  goods,  What  to 

buy,  169 

Length  of  wool  fibers,  33 
Lime  in  soap,  111 
Linen,  90 

action  of  acids  and  al- 
kalies upon,  98 

art,  98 

bed,  100 


Linen, 

bleaching,  17,  95 

butcher's,  99 

conductor  of  heat  and 
electricity,  97 

distinguishing  between 
cotton  and,  102 

dyeing,  22 

fabrics,  Common,  98 

fiber,  Physical  and 
chemical  characteris- 
tics of,  96,  145 

French  damask,  100 

German  damask,  100 

handkerchief,  99 

heat  conduction  of,  14 

household,  99 

Irish,  99 

John  Brown,  99 

luster,  97 

response  to  dyes,  98 

Scotch,  99 

sizing,  96 

table,  99 

tests  of,  102 

toweling,  101 

undergarments,  146 

weaving,  94 
Long-staple  wools,  33 
Loom,  5 
Louisine,  74 
Luster  of  wool,  33 
Lye  in  soap,  110 


INDEX 


201 


Machinery    for    laundry, 

135 
Machines,  Power,  138 

washing,  135 
Maline,  74 
Mangles,  137 
Materials  before  and  aft- 
er boiling  in  lye,  57, 
59,  60 

common  silk,  73 
Mature  cotton  fiber,  13 
Meal,  Cottonseed,  9 
Meat  juice  stains,  121 
Medicine  stains,  125 
Mending,  183 
Mercerized  cotton,  18,  19 

test  for,  21 
Mildew,  14 

removal  of,  125 
Milk  spots,  122 

stains,  122 

Mineral  acids,  15,  16 
Miscellaneous  wools,  33 
Mixed   cotton   and   wool, 

chemical  test,  56 
Moire,  74 
Mold,  125 
Mordants,  12,  21,  22,  78, 

116 
reaction      of      linen 

toward,  98 

Moths,    Cotton    resistant 
to,  14 


Mousseline  de  Sole,  74 
Mucus  stains,  121 
Mulberry  silkworm,  66 
Mull,  25 
Muslin,  24 

Nainsook,  25 

Naphtha  soap,  120 

Nap  of  wool  goods,  Rais- 
ing, 119 

Napping,  40 

Natural  dyestuffs,  22 

Neutralizing  solution,  17 

Night,  Garments  worn  at, 
160 

Noils,  37 

Oil,  Cotton,  9 
One-piece  garments,  157 
Organic  acids  and  salts, 

15,  16 

Organdie,  25 
Oxalic  acid,  15 

Paint  stains,  121 
Parts  of  loom,  5 
Peau  de  Soie,  75 
Percale,  25 
Percentage  of  shrinkage, 

Test  for,  27 
Permanent    hardness    of 

water,  109 


202 


INDEX 


Perspiration,  Effect  of,  on 

silk,   80 
test  for  fastness  to,  26 

Physical     characteristics 

of  cotton,  12 
characteristics    of    silk 

fiber,  76 

properties    of    textiles, 
145 

Picking,  5,  9 

Pique,  25 

Planting  cotton,  7 

Plush,  75 

Pongee,  66,  75 

Power  machines,  138 

Presence  of  iron  in  blu- 
ing, Test  for,  114 

Pressing  seams  with  bot- 
tle, 119 

Price,  Wearing  qualities 
compared  with,  27 

Printing,  23 

Prussian  blue,  114 

Pure    silks    before    and 
after  burning,  83,  86 

Pure  textile  laws,  46 

Quality  of  fiber,  Test  for, 

29 
of  wool,  30 

Raddle,  6 

Raising     nap     of     wool 
goods,  119 


Rajah,  75 

Raw  silk,  67 

Ready-made  garments, 
167 

Reagent  for  cleaning,  120 

Reasons  for  washing,  105 

Reed,  6 

Reeled  and  waste  silk,  71 

Reeling,  Silk,  69,  71 

Removing  stains,  118 

Resist  process  of  print- 
ing, 24 

Retting  flax,  93 

Rhubarb,  15 

Rinsing  colored  clothes, 
117 

Rippling  flax,  93 

Rubbers,  154 

Rust,  Iron,  123 

Sales,  176 

Saltpeter,  117 

Salts  of  organic  acids,  15 

Salt  to  set  colors,  116 

Sateen,  25 

Satin,  75 

brocaded,    73 

Skinner's,  75 
Scotch  linen,  99 
Scrim,  25 
Scutching  flax,  93 
Serges,  63 
Sericin,  68,  78 


INDEX 


203 


Set  colors,  To,  116 
Sewing,     Knowledge    of, 

181 

Shearing,  35 
Shedding,  5 

Shepherd   checked   mate- 
rials, 55,  61 
Shields,  149 
Shoddy,  43,  63 
Shoes,  153,  169,  183 
Shopping,  180 
Short-staple  wools,  33 
Shrinkage  of  wool,  32 

test  for  percentage  of, 

27 

Shuttle,  4,  6 
Silk,  66 

adulterated,  86 

artificial.  86 

Chardonnet,  87,  88 

China,  73 

dyeing,  22,  70 

fiber,  Physical  and 
chemical  characteris- 
tics of,  76 

finish,  20 

floss,  70 

hygroscopicity  of,  146 

imported,  73 

manufacture  in  the 
United  States,  72 

materials,  73 

pure,  83?  86 


Silk, 

reeled  and  waste,  69,  71 

wash,  86 

weighting,  70,  78,  83 
Silkworm,  66,  72 
Sizing  linen,  96 
Skirts,  long,  158 
Sleeping  bags,  161 
Slivers,  37 
Soap,  110 

homemade,  111 

laundry,  112 

substitutes,  112 
Soda,   Washing,   109 
Softening     hard     water, 

109 

Soft  water,  108 
Soiled  clothes,  150 
Solutions  of  acids,  15 
Solvents,  120 
Sorting  wool,  37 
Specifications,    War    De- 
partment, 47 
Spinning  cotton,  11 

evolution  of,  1 

flax,  94 

wool,  38 

Sprinkling   clothes,   131 
Stains,  17 

blood,  121 

cocoa,  122 

coffee,  122 

cream 


204 


INDEX 


Stains, 

fruit,  122 

grass,  125 

grease,  119 

ink,  124 

iodine,  125 

meat  juice,  121 

medicine,  125 

milk,  122 

mucus,  121 

removing,  118 

tea,  122 

varnish,  121 
Stockings,    Selection    of, 

156,  170 

Strengthening  threads,  12 
Strength     of     materials, 
Test  for,  28 

of  wool,  Tensile,  34,  53 
Substantive  dyes,  21 
Substitutes  for  soap,  112 
Sugar  of  lead,  117 
Sunlight,    Test   for   fast- 
ness to,  25 
Swiss,  Dotted,  29 

Table  linen,  99 
Taffeta,  75 
Tannic  acid,  78 
Tapa  cloth,  2 
Tartrates,  15 
Teasel,  39 
Tea  stains,  122 


Temporary    and    perma- 
nent hardness  of  wa- 
ter, 109 
Tensile  strength  of  wool, 

34,  53 

Tenterhooks,  6 
Tests    for    crocking,    26, 

64 

dressing  in  cottons,  27 
fading,  64 
fastness  to  dyes,  64 
fastness     to     perspira- 
tion, 26 

fastness  to  sunlight,  25 
fastness  to  washing,  26 
iron  in  bluing,  114 
linen,  102 

mercerized  cotton,  21 
percentage    of   shrink- 
age, 27 

quality  of  fiber,  29 
strength   of   materials, 

28 

War  Department,  48 
weighting,  82 
woolen  materials,  51 
Textile  laws,  46,  82 
Thin  fiber,  13 
Thread,  11 

Throwing  the  shuttle,  4 
Tops,  33 
Toweling,  101 
Tulle,  76 


INDEX 


205 


Tussah  silk,  66 

Types  of  cotton  fibers,  13 

Ultramarine   blue,   115 
Union  suits,  158 

Varieties   of  wool,   Com- 
parison of,  31 
Varnish  stains,  121 
Vegetable  fibers,  Effect  of 

acids  on,  106 
effect  of  alkalies  on,  107 
Veils,  159 
Velvet,  76 
Velveteen,  25 
Vinegar,  15,  58 
Virgin  wool,  62 
Viyella  flannel,  63 

War  Department  specifi- 
cations, 47,  48 
Warp  and  weft,  55,  58 
Warp  shed,  4 
Washing  compounds,  113 

family,  190 

handkerchiefs,  135 

hanging  clothes,  130 

Iace3,  134 

reasons  for,  105 

soda,  109 

test  for  fastness  to,  26 

when  to  wash,  129 

woolens,  131 


Waste  in  wool  manufac- 
ture, 43 
silk,  71 
Water,    Hard    and    soft, 

108 

Wearing    qualities    com- 
pared with  price,  27 
Weaving,  12,  38 
evolution  of,  1 
firmness,  52 
flax,  91 
linen,  94 
Weighting   silk,    70,    78, 

83 

What  is  a  bargain?  175 
White   gloves,   To   clean, 

127 
White    shoes,    To    clean, 

127 
Wool,  30 

as    conductor    of    elec- 
tricity, 34 
blanket,  33 
carding,  36,  37 
carpet,  33 
chemical  test,  56 
combing,  37 
cortex,  32 
difference  between  hair 

and,  32 
drawing  and  spinning, 

38 
dyeing,  22,  35,  38 


206 


INDEX 


Wool, 

effect  of  acids  and  al- 
kalies on,  34 

elasticity  of,  34 

epidermis,  31 

felting  property  of,  32 

finishing,  39 

fleeces,  37 

for  undergarments,  146 

goods,  To  raise  the  nap 
of,  119 

hygroscopicity  of,  33,  46 

length  of  fibers,  33 

long-staple,  33 

luster  of,  33 

medulla,  32 

miscellaneous,  33 

napping,  40 

noils,  37 

quality  of,  30 


Wool, 

shearing,  35 

shoddy,  43 

short-staple,  33 

shrinkage  of,  32,  35,  40 

slivers,  37 

sorting,  37 

tensile  strength  of,  34 

tops,  33 

varieties  compared,  31 

weaving,  38 

Woolen   materials,    Tests 
for,  51 

yarn,  41 

Woolens,  To  wash,  131 
Worsted  cheviots,  63 

yarn,  41 

Yarn,  woolen,  41 
worsted,  41 


HI 


